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Stories of South America 

Historical and Geographical 



BY 

E. C. BROOKS 



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JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY 
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 



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Conyright, 1922 
By -— 
Johnson Publishing Company 



All rights reserved 



©CU690054 

NOV -6 1322 






PREFACE 

Our schools have neglected too long to instruct our youth 
in the history and natural resources of the South American 
republics. Most of the literature on t South America published 
in this country consists of books of travel, which, as such, are 
unsuitable as texts for our elementary or secondary schools. 
The rising generation, however, should know that near our 
southern limits lies a continent that has a history as interest- 
ing as that of the ancient Greeks and Romans and as enter- 
taining as that of any nation of modern Europe. They should 
know that within this century these South American republics 
may possibly become our greatest competitors in the commerce 
of the world and share the prestige of demonstrating the pur- 
pose of democratic government. They should know that 
many of our own citizens have moved to South America and 
established colonies in the Amazon valley and elsewhere; and 
they may ask, as our country becomes more and more thickly 
populated, whether the surplus from North America will not 
go to enlarge the peoples of South America. 

Careful students of the movements of population predict 
that, in the time to come, great nations will develop on the 
southern continent which will surpass any now existing in the 
old world. These will be our nearest neighbors ; yet of their 
civilization, past and present, our children know practically 
nothing. On the other hand, the youth of South America are 
taught in the schools to speak our language, to understand our 
civilization, to appreciate our form of government, and to 
study our resources. 

I became interested in South America when a teacher at 
Trinity College, Durham, where I collected most of the mat- 
ter contained in South American Stories for use as illustra- 
tive material or type studies for my classes. This material 
has recently been rewritten, in order that teachers may have 
an available text to use in instructing students in ths wonderful 
history, the interesting geography, and the strange fauna and 
flora of the great continent that lies to the south of us. 

THE AUTHOR. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. South America a Land of Adventure 

and of Promise 9 

Chapter II. Panama, the Gateway of the World. . 23 

Chapter III. Pizarro, the Great Adventurer 40 

Chapter IV. Peru, the Emperor's Treasure Chest. . 57 

Chapter V. Lima, the City of the Kings 70 

Chapter VI. Sir Walter Raleigh and the Decline 

of Spain 81 

Chapter VII. How an Earthquake Stopped Miran- 

da's Revolution 93 

Chapter VIII. San Martin 105 

Chapter IX. Bolivar 120 

Chapter X. San Martin Meets Bolivar 131 

Chapter XI. O'Higgins of Chile 144 

Chapter XII. The Age of Tyrants and how a Cow- 
boy Became Dictator . 157 

Chapter XIII. The Christ of the Andes 171 

Chapter XIV. How Brazil Became an Empire 184 

Chapter XV. The Last Emperor of Brazil 196 

Chapter XVI. The Wonderful Amazon 211 

Chapter XVII. -The Lazy's Man's Tree 225 

Chapter XVIII. „ Brazil of Today 237 

Chapter XIX. Other Republics of South America. . . 248 

Chapter XX. Pan-American Union 259 



STORIES OF SOUTH AMERICA 

CHAPTEK I 

SOUTH AMERICA A LAND OF ADVENTURE 
AND OF PROMISE 

The history of the western hemisphere begins 
rather with South America than with North 
America. Students of United States history are 
familiar with the life of Christopher Columbus and 
his finding of the New World. Although he 
pointed the way for European nations to found 
valuable colonies in North America, there was an 
interval of a hundred and fifteen years between 
Columbus's discovery in 1492 and the first Eng- 
lish settlement in 1607. In this period much his- 
tory was made in South America. Spain and 
Portugal established rich colonies on*the southern 
continent. They built cities and developed a valu- 
able commerce that not only enriched Spain and 
Portugal but created commercial and political cen- 
ters in South America rivaling in importance many 
of the cities of Europe. Students naturally ask 
how it happened that Spain and Portugal gained 
such an advantage in the sixteenth century over 



England, France, and the other European nations 
and why it was that they established colonies in 
South America rather than in North America. 

In the fifteenth century, many cities on or near 
the Mediterranean Sea developed a rich trade with 
India, and goods brought from Asia were sold 
throughout Europe. This commerce made these 
cities rich and powerful. But in the last half of 
the fifteenth century the Turks captured Con- 
stantinople. Moors had long before conquered the 
southern part of Spain. Having also taken posses- 
sion of western Asia, through which the trade lines 
ran between Europe and India, the Turks made it 
exceedingly difficult for the cities of southern 
Europe to continue their commerce with the East. 
This caused distress to Europe and forced the 
traders to seek other routes to India. 

Through the encouragement of Prince Henry of 
Portugal, daring seamen sought to reach India by 
going around the southern end of Africa. Others 
thought that India might be arrived at by sailing 
westward and circumnavigating the globe. Chris- 
topher Columbus, thanks to the aid of the king and 
queen of Spain, was the first to attempt to reach 
India by sailing due west. Instead of reaching 
India, he discovered the New World (1492). 
However, he thought that he had reached Cipango 
or Japan ; nor did he, to the day of his death, know 
that he had discovered a new continent. Six years 

10 



later (1498), Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese, suc- 
ceeded in reaching India by sailing around the 
Cape of Good Hope. Thus, a water route to India 
was found by Portugal and a new world was dis- 
covered by Spain. These nations, being more 
familiar with long-distance navigation than the 
northern Europeans and having better vessels, were 
in a position to develop a commerce with the Orient. 

Why was South America colonized before North 
America ? 

Christopher Columbus, after landing on one of 
the Bahama Islands, in October, 1492, and later 
on the shores of Cuba, founded his first colony on 
the island of Haiti. He christened it Hispaniola, 
which means Little Spain, and there set up the 
first European settlement in America. Returning 
to Spain, he let his success be known to the world. 

This queerly-shaped island of Haiti, lying almost 
in the middle of the chain of West Indies, between 
Porto Rico and Cuba, is the second largest of these 
islands. It contains 2,800 square miles, which is 
about the area of the states of Vermont, New 
Hampshire, and Massachusetts. At the time of 
Columbus's discovery, the population was thought 
to be nearly 2,000,000. The island was rich in 
natural resources. There was much gold, and the 
fertile soil produced many things. The Spaniards, 
eager for wealth, sought to make the natives their 
servants, forcing them to work in mines and till 

11 



the soil. As a result, the Indians became hostile 
and massacred the first colonists. But on his sec- 
ond voyage Columbus brought about 1,500 fol- 
lowers, and the colony, within a few years, increased 
so greatly that the Spaniards were able to subdue 
the island. In time they killed out the natives. 
Since the latter did not make good laborers, negro 
servants were introduced from Africa, beginning 
as early as 1512; this slave labor became most 
profitable. Thereafter, blacks were imported in 
such swarms that soon the number of negroes on 
the island was greater than that of Spaniards and 
Indians together. 

In 1496 the town of Santo Domingo was 
founded ; it became the capital of the island and of 
the Spanish dominions in the New World. Within 
a short time its streets were alive with adventurers, 
who flocked thither seeking wealth. For some 
years it was not only the center of Spanish control 
in America, but a city of much commercial impor- 
tance; the island of Haiti was Spain's most valuable 
colony. Here in 1501 came Vasco Nunez de Bal- 
boa, a bankrupt young Spanish nobleman, who had 
decided to mend his fortunes in the New World. 
He did not linger in Santo Domingo, but sailed for 
the Isthmus of Darien, where he made friends with 
the Indians, established a colony, and discovered, 
the Pacific Ocean. 

It was at Santo Domingo that Hernando Cortez 

12 



landed in 1504, and from that place he led an expe- 
dition into Cuba and thence to Mexico, where in 
1519 he captured Montezuma, the ruler of Mexico, 
and obtained enough gold to make Spain rich. 

About the same time another Spanish soldier, 
Francisco Pizarro, full of the spirit of adventure, 
landed at Santo Domingo and later joined Balboa 
on the Isthmus of Darien. From Panama he led an 
expedition down to Peru, conquering the Inca, the 
ruler of that country. He, also, shipped enormous 
quantities of gold to Spain. 

As a result of the activities of these and thou- 
sands of other Spaniards, Central and South 
America were explored and vast amounts of the 
precious metals were sent to Europe. The route 
down into South America seemed to be lined with 
gold, but little of it was found in North America, 
outside of Mexico. For that reason the northern 
continent for a hundred years after the discovery 
was considered of small value. 

Spain suddenly became great by reason of her 
territories in the New World. But Spain had one 
enterprising commercial rival, her neighbor, Por- 
tugal. England at that time was a small, strug- 
gling nation, hardly able to maintain its independ- 
ence. France was not a commercial nation of 
prominence. Portugal, however, after Portuguese 
seamen sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and 
opened up a trade route with India, rose to great 

13 



importance. The Portuguese government wished 
to secure a share of the wealth of the New World. 
In 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese 
nobleman of illustrious family, set sail for America 
and took possession of the shores of Brazil, which 
had already been discovered by Pinzon, a com- 
panion of Columbus. 

Henceforth, the rivalry for the possession of 
South America lay between Spain and Portugal, 
and for nearly a century these two nations vied 
with each other to see which could profit more by 
the wealth of the New World. Spain at first used 
the island of Haiti as a base from which to plant 
her colonies in Mexico, Central America, and along 
the northern and western coasts of South America. 
Eventually, as rich colonies developed, Haiti came 
to be almost deserted. It fell a prey to savage 
Indians and negroes, and to pirates that ^urked 
along its coast. 

On the return of Cabral, the Portuguese gov- 
ernment at once sent to South America a large 
expedition under the command of Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, who made a careful study of the coast from 
the Amazon to the Plata River. On the first day 
of January, 1501, he sailed into a beautiful bay 
which he thought to be a river. He, therefore, 
called it Rio de Janeiro, or "River of January." 
He was unable to find much gold and silver, but he 
did discover a very valuable dye wood of bright red. 

14 



This Vespucci called "brazilwood," which means 
"wood the color of fire." It was so valuable that 
the land was called "The Country of Brazilwood," 
and finally Brazil. Hundreds of vessels, not only 
from Portugal but from other lands, sailed to 
Brazil, and fortunes were made by trading in dye- 
wood, which was greatly wanted in Europe. 

Amerigo Vespucci declared that if there were 
such a thing as an earthly paradise it could not be 
far from the Brazilian coast. Returning home, he 
wrote an account of his voyage, with maps, and 
published it. Many people throughout Europe 
read it and marveled at the wonderful country he 
pictured. When they spoke of the New World, 
they called it the land of "America," that is, the 
land discovered by Amerigo Vespucci. Thus we 
have the name America. 

The struggle was now fairly under way for pos- 
session of South America. Other nations watched 
with jealous eyes the stream of wealth flowing from 
Central and South America to Spain and Portu- 
gal, but they were unable to stop its flow or to 
profit much from it, save by making war here and 
there in a piratical manner and robbing vessels as 
they sped along with rich cargoes. The great con- 
test for world supremacy in that period lay be- 
tween Spain and Portugal. 

The Spaniards offered ships to those who would 
sail along the northern and western coasts in search 

15 



of gold. The Portuguese planted sugar cane in 
Brazil and gave land to all who would settle in this 
fertile country and cultivate sugar. The Span- 
iards went into Mexico, took the wealth from Mon- 
tezuma, and shipped great treasures to Spain. The 
Portuguese sent shiploads of dyewood and sugar 
back to Portugal. The Spanish built cities, en- 
slaved Indians and negroes, and forced them to 
work in the mines. The Portuguese established rich 
plantations, brought in slave labor, and developed 
great cane-fields and sugar factories, which laid the 
foundation of a rich commerce. 

The Spaniards moved down the west coast of 
South America and robbed the natives of their 
wealth. The Portuguese occupied the east coast 
and cultivated native plants that were useful to 
Europe. The Spaniards discovered the alpaca 
sheep on the western slopes of the Andes and, car- 
rying its wool to Spain, gave royalty new fabrics. 
The Portuguese found the cotton plant in the val- 
ley of the Amazon. This plant has since become 
the principal material of dress of all the world. 

While the Spaniards were seeking the Fountain 
of Youth, where it was believed old men might 
bathe and regain youthful vigor, the Portuguese 
were searching for the Amazons, a race of female 
warriors said to guard the city of El Dorado, the 
wealth of which was declared to surpass anything 
in the East. 

16 



The Spaniards discovered on the plains of Peru 
the llama, the Peruvian sheep, with head like a 
camel, wool like a sheep, legs like a deer, and neigh 
like a horse. The Portuguese found in the Amazon 
an animal, half cow and half fish, the cow-fish, and, 
in the forests, the anaconda, a snake sixty feet long, 
as big round as a tree, and with a head like a dragon. 
They also discovered birds of beautiful plumage 
which excited the admiration of kings and queens. 

All these stories of gold and silver and dyewood 
and sugar cane and cotton fields and strange ani- 
mals and beautiful birds gave Europe a new lesson 
in animals and plants and precious metals. There 
had been nothing like it in the Old World, and 
European adventurers turned their eyes toward 
America as to a fairy region of riches and marvels. 

The nations of Europe loved gold because it was 
the chief money of all civilized peoples. The nobles 
adorned themselves with it and churches and pal- 
aces were ornamented with it; but the sugar of 
Brazil brought as much joy to the world, perhaps, 
as did the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru. 

South America was the great wonderland. The 
tales of adventure there were as marvelous as 
the Arabian Nights; every adventurer returning 
home could entertain his friends for weeks with 
delightful stories. So many people wished to hear 
of the discoveries, made not only in South America 
but in India as well, that news bulletins became 

17 



popular, and newspapers may be said to have had 
their beginning in this public demand for knowl- 
edge. 

Gold and silver from South America flowed in 
a continual stream into the treasury of Spain. 
More money than the world had ever known before 
was suddenly thrown into circulation. As a result, 
banks sprang up and grew into important institu- 
tions: every progressive nation founded them to 
help in the commerce of the world. It became pos- 
sible to carry on business on a large scale because 
money was more plentiful and credit easier to 
obtain than ever before; great commercial com- 
panies arose. 

Europe was awake to the fact that a vast con- 
tinent, wealthy beyond the dreams of the past, lay 
less than 3,000 miles to the westward. It was easy 
to reach America, but the voyage took a long time 
and so large were the cargoes that had to be carried 
and so numerous were the adventurers and settlers 
who voyaged that the tiny vessels then in use were 
not big enough. Ships began to be made larger and 
better for the trade of South America. Besides, 
stronger ships armed for war were needed now, for 
the selfishness and greed of the European nations 
caused them to prey on each other's commerce. A 
new era in ship -building resulted, therefore, from 
the discovery and colonization of South America. 

These treasure ships from South America drew 

18 



to American waters adventurers from other nations 
of Europe, who also were learning to build better 
ships. It was not considered very wrong then for 
sailors of one nation to capture, by fair means or 
foul, the merchant ships of other nations. This 
piratical warfare went on in times when the nations 
themselves were at peace. A host of pirates, or 
buccaneers, skulked along the bays and rivers, wait- 
ing for these treasure ships; sometimes they even 
captured towns along the coast. The treasures of 
the New World were fair spoil for any who could 
take them. It was an age when bold sailors often 
made a fortune at a stroke. Such was the land and 
such were the adventurers that caused Europe 
almost to forget for the time the wealth of India 
and look westward. The continent that gave 
Europe a new lesson in the sixteenth century has 
a new lesson for the United States today. 

In this great contest for possession of the New 
World, Portugal strengthened her colonies in 
Brazil and developed an important empire. 

But what became of Haiti? The center of 
Spanish control passed from that historic island to 
Panama and thence to Peru. The story of this 
development will be told in following chapters. 
Unhappily, the later history of Haiti is a tale of 
cruel tyranny, misrule, and savage warfare. 

The Spaniards, lured on in their quest for gold, 
well-nigh deserted the island which might have 

19 



become the center of a great nation and a pros- 
perous people. Even the city of Santo Domingo 
was allowed to decay. The Spaniards in their 
greed almost forgot that the remains of Columbus 
and his son lay sleeping beneath its walls. The 
little island that had once aroused the interest of 
the Old World became, within a few decades, the 
stamping-ground of pirates and buccaneers and 
the football of nations desiring a hold in the New 
World. Spain established more prosperous colo- 
nies in Panama, Mexico, and Peru, and had so little 
thought of Haiti that it lay almost unprotected: 
France without much difficulty took possession of 
it. Later the negroes, who had increased so greatly 
that they far outnumbered the white or mixed races, 
rose in lTSLL-under the leadership of Toussaint 
l'Ouverture, and finally overthrew French rule and 
established an independent government. This was 
the second negro republic in the New World. The 
other was in the interior of Brazil, where the 
negroes greatly outnumbered the Portuguese. 

The history of Haiti, since the republic came into 
being, is the story of a people's falling back to 
barbarism while struggling to erect something 
resembling civilized government. The first act of 
the negroes in western Haiti, on setting up their 
state, was to murder all the white people in that 
part of the island. The eastern portion of the island 
was largely Spanish, but the mixture of races and 

20 



the threatening negroes to the west kept it in a 
state of turmoil and insurrection. The old civiliza- 
tion was fast passing away. The remains of Co- 
lumbus and his son had been removed to Spain. 
Bandit warfare took the place of law and order. 
The negroes in the interior, no longer supported by 
civilization, went back to savagery and even to can- 
nibalism, and the black rites of voodoo magic swept 
away the last traces of Christianity. The life of the 
African jungle appeared in the New World. 

In 1844, the republic of Santo Domingo, which 
embraces about two thirds of the island, was 
created, leaving the negro republic of Haiti to 
occupy the western third. The people of Santo 
Domingo are more Spanish than negro. They 
speak the Spanish language and are more capable 
of self-government than the Haitians. The inhab- 
itants of Haiti are mainly of negro blood and speak 
a dialect of their own, hardly understood by the 
people of any other nation. The people of Santo 
Domingo are hostile to the Haitians, and the two 
nations have frequently been at war. 

So low did the two governments in the island of 
Haiti fall, such a menace did they become to all 
nations trading in the waters about the island, so 
lost were they to the sense of right and justice, that 
the United States in 1915 was compelled to take 
over both of them in order to restore order and 
teach the people how to govern themselves. 

21 



Thus the first attempt of the Spanish to found a 
colony in the New World resulted in failure, and 
the island of Haiti, instead of becoming a factor in 
world progress, is a serious problem in social and 
political control. If the United States takes its 
hands off Haiti, will it revert again to complete 
barbarism ? 




First Spanish Settlements 



22 



CHAPTER II 

PANAMA, THE GATEWAY OF THE WORLD 

Within a few years of Columbus's discovery of 
America, Spanish adventurers were coming to the 
New World by thousands to seek fortune. One of 
the most notable of these was Vasco Nunez de 
Balboa. As was stated in the previous chapter, 
he arrived at Santo Domingo in 1501 and obtained 
land in the neighborhood, on which he tried to cul- 
tivate sugar cane with little success, and it became 
necessary for him to leave the island secretly in 
order to avoid imprisonment for debt. 

Learning that two vessels would sail for San 
Sebastian for the purpose of carrying provisions 
to that newly-founded settlement, Balboa hid in 
a box of provisions and had the box carried from his 
farm to the ship. When he was discovered at sea, 
the captain of the vessel thought of sending him 
back to Santo Domingo, but Balboa begged to be 
allowed to go on with the party, and his request was 
granted. On reaching San Sebastian, the voyagers 
found the settlement in ruins. They then decided 
to sail for the Isthmus of Darien. This was in 
1510. 

23 



• 



Little was known at that time of the narrow strip 
of land connecting North and South America. 
Many Spaniards had touched the coast there at 
several points, but no one had gone inland. Balboa 
himself was as familiar with this section as any 
other Spaniard, since he had visited the isthmus on 
an exploring expedition a few years earlier. After 
the party landed a new colony was set up ; but quar- 
rels broke out; the captain was deposed, thrown 
into prison and finally sent back to Spain, and 
Balboa came to rule in his stead. 

Being now in control of the colony, Balboa began 
to extend his power over the surrounding country. 
By his bravery, courtesy, kindness of heart, and 
just dealing with the Indians, he gained the friend- 
ship of several of their chiefs. From them he heard 
for the first time of the great ocean on the other side 
of the mountains and of the marvelous stores of 
gold in Peru. Peru, however, could be reached only 
by sailing down the western coast of South Amer- 
ica, which had not then been visited by any Span- 
iard. While these stories were taking hold of 
Balboa, an order came for him to return to Spain 
and answer for the part he had played in the rebel- 
lion that had resulted in his becoming the head of 
the Spanish colony on the Isthmus of Panama. In 
his despair over this command, Balboa resolved to 
attempt some great enterprise, the success of which, 
he trusted, would win the sovereign's pardon. 

24 



On September 1, 1513, he set out with one hun- 
dred and ninety Spaniards and several hundred 
natives to discover the great ocean of which he had 
heard. After finding that, he planned to lead an 
expedition down into Peru. The natives had told 
him tales of cities, with palaces ornamented with 
gold, where food was served on golden plates. 

On the isthmus Balboa had married the daughter 
of an Indian chief. Through her he learned of the 
nearest way across the mountains. He followed 
this Indian route. The party pushed its way with 
great effort across streams, through dangerous 
jungles, and over steep mountain ridges. The 
isthmus is only about thirty-five miles wide at its 
narrowest point, but it is such a mass of twisted 
mountain ranges that crossing it proved to be a 
most difficult feat. This narrow chain of high 
mountains seems to be meant to weld the two conti- 
nents together. After a terrible journey, on Sep- 
tember 25, Balboa, standing on the summit of a 
mountain, saw the measureless stretch of a great 
ocean; and four days later, on September 29, he 
arrived on the shore. Rushing down into the water 
and waving the flag of his country over his head, he 
claimed the "Great South Sea," as he called it, and 
all the land touched by it, in the name of his sov- 
ereign, the king of Spain. Later (1519), Magel- 
lan in his wonderful voyage around the world 
named the ocean "Pacific" because of its calm sur- 

25 



face. The name Pacific has largely taken the place 
of the first name of South Sea. 

Balboa and his men remained on the Pacific coast 
for several days. There he heard again of the won- 
derful country of Peru to the south, and he was 
filled with a desire to build and equip some vessels 
to conquer it. The Indians on the Pacific coast 
had many ornaments of gold, from which fact it 
seemed likely to the Spaniards that they were on the 
eve of finding vast treasures. 

Many years before the Spaniards came to the 
New World, the territory on the Pacific coast of 
the isthmus had been peopled by a race of Indians 
that mined much gold and silver. In their tombs 
were to be found golden images, golden ornaments, 
golden bells, and other articles of great value. 
Consequently, the Spaniards readily believed the 
stories told them of a superior race of Indians to 
the south, whose rulers lived in golden-covered 
palaces, bathed in basins lined with gold, and were 
served on vessels of solid gold. 

Balboa collected many gold ornaments, which 
he carried back to his colony on the eastern coast 
of the Isthmus of Darien. Some of these he sent to 
his king, together with the news of his great dis- 
covery. The king was so well pleased that he for- 
gave Balboa for his past offenses and named him 
admiral of the South Sea and governor of the 
colony. Being thus granted legal authority, Balboa 

26 



planned to build vessels on the Pacific coast and 
head an expedition into Peru. 

When the story of the great discovery was heard 
in Spain, the Spaniards began to lose interest in 
Haiti. They desired to explore the country from 
which the gold had come and visit the region washed 
by the South Sea. The number of colonies on the 
isthmus increased rapidly. The leaders grew hos- 
tile to each other, and more than once armed con- 
flicts occurred. While Balboa was planning his 
expedition to Peru, Pedrarias Davila with a con- 
siderable force landed on the isthmus. Balboa and 
Pedrarias soon became jealous of each other. 
Balboa was finally arrested by Pedrarias on the 
charge of treason and thrown into prison. Pedra- 
rias, now having his rival in his power, put him on 
trial for treason and forced the judge to condemn 
him to death. Balboa was publicly executed in 
1517. 

His great discovery, however, had opened the 
way for the flow of wealth to Spain. Spaniards 
continued to arrive on the isthmus in increasing 
rtumbers and soon they had a well-made road 
across the mountains. Within two years of Bal- 
boa's death (1519) , a town was built on the Pacific 
coast by Pedrarias, which was called Panama, or 
"The Place of Fish," because of the abundance of 
fish found in the little bay on which the settlement 
was situated. This was the first city founded by 

27 



Europeans on the American continent. The coun- 
try around the town of Panama was fertile, and, as 
the number of settlers increased, great cattle farms 
and sugar plantations developed. Soon Panama 
became the most prosperous Spanish colony in the 
New World. Being on the Pacific coast, it was 
untroubled by the pirates, who swarmed in the 
Caribbean, and the people could live without fear 
of foreign invasion. 

In the centuries that have passed since the found- 
ing of Panama, this city has had many changes of 
fortune and has been in turn rich and powerful, 
poor and small, and again prominent. During the 
sixteenth century it was, with one exception to be 
mentioned in a later chapter, the strongest Spanish 
fortress and most important city in the New World. 
The harbor of Panama was filled with vessels built 
to ply along the coast, and through the streets of 
Panama flowed enough wealth on its way to Spain 
to support a vast empire. Here came great gal- 
leons, laden with gold and silver, from the countries 
to the south. Much of the gold and silver remained 
in Panama to enrich the inhabitants and adorn the 
city with costly palaces and cathedrals. As the city 
grew, it was laid off in truly Spanish style, having 
a wide plaza or open court around which were 
grouped the government buildings and palaces and 
cathedrals. 

The Spaniards lived in the city, but they en- 

28 



slaved the Indians and imported negro slaves to 
work on the sugar plantations and cattle ranches 
or dig in the mines. They were cruel masters, 
desiring the service of laborers at the least possible 
expense. Therefore, few nations have made a worse 
reputation for cruelty than is theirs. 

The difficulty of carrying gold and silver across 
the isthmus to the vessels on the eastern coast was 
another cause contributing to the prosperity of 
Panama. It will be recalled that Balboa and his 
men were nearly a month making the first journey 
to the Pacific. Even the earliest settlers in Panama 
saw the necessity of digging a canal across the 
isthmus. The difficulty of doing this, however, was 
too great at that time, though a road was built over 
mountain passes, across streams, and through dan- 
gerous swamps and jungles filled with all sorts of 
reptiles, wild beasts, and insects. Travel between 
Panama and Europe went that way, except in those 
rare instances when an adventurer made the jour- 
ney around Cape Horn. Moreover, all supplies 
coming from Spain were unloaded on the eastern 
shore and carried over on horse or mule-back to 
the Pacific coast. Immense quantities of goods 
were thus transported across the isthmus for a long 
period of time. When the Pilgrims landed in 
Massachusetts and established the first colony on 
that rock-bound coast, Panama was a hundred years 
old and had the appearance of a city situated on one 

29 



of the famous highways of the world. Lines of 
caravans, made up of horses, mules or oxen, were 
constantly coming and going over a road worn deep 
by the unceasing traffic of a century. 

In the earlier days this great commerce tempted 
numbers of pirates to lurk along the northern coast 
of South America, lying in wait for the galleons 
freighted with gold and silver and other products 
going to Spain. Many schemes were formed to 
capture Panama, but the city seemed to be too 
secure to be taken. If a prize is large enough, 
however, some one will usually be found bold and 
daring enough to make any venture. Panama, 
however, was one hundred and fifty years old be- 
fore it was even seriously threatened by the buc- 
caneers who had made such daring raids on the 
Atlantic and Caribbean coasts of South America. 

In 1670, Henry Morgan, a Welshman, and the 
boldest buccaneer on the high seas, set to work to 
capture the city. An irregular war had been going 
on for some time between the English at Jamaica 
and the Spaniards, and Morgan held a sort of com- 
mission from the governor of Jamaica. Morgan 
sailed for the isthmus and ran his vessels up the 
Chagres River as far as possible: then with two 
thousand men, he began his journey across the isth- 
mus. He had to avoid the old trade route in order 
to take the city by surprise. It was a risky march. 

The men were lost in the tangled woods and 

30 



floundered around in swamps until they nearly 
starved to death. They carried few supplies, ex- 
pecting to take food from the natives and from the 
Spanish plantations. It was easy for pirates to 
fight and capture ships, but impossible for them to 
escape the miseries caused by hunger, poisonous 
insects, and dangerous swamps. As a result, many 
of them died in the woods. But the old buccaneer, 
Morgan, knew that great booty lay just ahead and 
he urged his followers forward. 

Traders passing across the isthmus saw the ves- 
sels and heard of the large number of men that had 
disappeared in the wilderness. The inhabitants of 
Panama were warned. But the city had been secure 
for so many generations that little fear was felt at 
first. Then word came that the buccaneers were 
approaching. At this news the people were at 
length aroused. The entire male population was 
called out to defend the city. There was excite- 
ment and confusion — little order. The officials 
called out the Indian and negro slaves and secured 
all the cattle that could be driven in. The slaves 
were formed into companies and threatened with 
death if they did not remain in front. About a 
thousand cattle, on which slaves were mounted, 
went ahead. Behind them the Spaniards were 
lined up to rush on the pirates after the slaves, 
riding on the cattle, had charged them and thrown 
them into confusion. 

31 



The Spaniards expected the cattle to stampede 
the pirates. They did not care what happened to 
the slaves. But the pirates proved to be too quick 
for them. They made a sudden assault on the 
column of cattle cavalry and frightened the slaves 
out of their wits. The shouts of the buccaneers, 
the deafening noise from their guns and their charge 
terrified the cattle, which, turning around in a 
panic, broke into the Spanish lines, creating con- 
fusion and consternation. The pirates charged 
behind the bellowing animals and gave no quarter, 
slaughtering all in their path. 

The Spanish soldiers fled in every direction and 
were slain by hundreds. The inhabitants of Pan- 
ama were terror-stricken. Some hurried into the 
swamps, others took to the vessels lying at anchor 
at the wharves. Women and children ran about the 
streets, helpless and deserted. Valuables were 
thrown into wells, carried out into the swamps, or 
placed on vessels and sent to sea. The pirates pur- 
sued the inhabitants and even made some who had 
sailed out to sea return. These fugitives were put 
to death. 

The city was looted. The invaders spent several 
days in robbing and pillaging and drinking and 
gambling. When they had gathered everything 
that was worth carrying away, they collected the 
horses and mules. Two hundred of them were 
loaded with rich spoils. The pirates then set fire 

32 



to the city, which was completely ^destroyed. Re- 
turning to their vessels on the east coast, they 
divided the plunder. Morgan gained such wealth 
as a result of this adventure that he gave up his 
buccaneer life and went to England, where he was 
knighted by the king. He returned to Jamaica as 
lieutenant-governor. 

So thoroughly was Panama destroyed that today 
only a broken tower and a few arches and columns 
mark the site of the old city. Vines and shrubs 
and even trees grow over the ruins, so that travelers 
have to be shown where stood the ancient Panama. 

A new Panama, which likewise has its romance, 
was built near the site of the original town. How- 
ever, Spain was growing weak, and trade across 
the isthmus had begun to decline even before the 
old city fell. Thus, the new town did not grow as 
quickly as had the former. England and France 
and the Dutch Republic had now become the great 
commercial countries. Yet even these nations felt 
the need of making a canal across the isthmus so 
that they might more easily reach the western coasts 
of the two continents. 

It was not until after the English colonists in 
North America had gained their independence, and 
the revolt of the Spanish colonies in the early nine- 
teenth century, that the present city of Panama 
became prominent as a trade center. This time the 
gold of California gave life to the trade route 

33 



across the isthmus. When gold was discovered in 
California, the people along the Atlantic coast of 
the United States went westward by thousands. 
That was in the days before the West was connected 
with the East by railroads, and overland travel 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific was most difficult. 
The easiest way was by sea to Panama, and thence 
by the Pacific up the coast to San Francisco. The 
old route followed by the Spaniards three centuries 
before became alive with gold-seekers, who went in 
ships to Colon, crossed the isthmus on mule-back to 
Panama, and continued the journey by sea to Cali- 
fornia. 

In this way much of the gold of California flowed 
through the streets of Panama and helped to re- 
build the city. The inhabitants drove a prosperous 
trade with California gold-seekers. It is said that 
they charged twenty-five cents apiece for eggs, 
and the ground rent for the space on which to swing 
a hammock for sleeping was two dollars a night. 
In Panama the gold-seekers had to buy provisions 
enough to last until they reached the coast of Cali- 
fornia. Many for the first time beheld in the mar- 
kets of the city monkey meat and other tropical or 
semi-tropical food, which they learned to eat. 

In 1855 a railroad across the isthmus was com- 
pleted. This was the first railroad to connect the 
Atlantic and the Pacific, and it at once became the 
most profitable railroad in the world for its capital. 

34 



No wonder! The rate was fifty cents a mile; the 
trip across cost twenty-five dollars. Panama was 
for a time the liveliest town on the Pacific coast, 
but when the Union Pacific Railroad crossing the 
United States was finished it lost much of its im- 
portance. This was regained when the United 
States decided to make the dream of the Spaniards, 
Portuguese, French, and English come true by 
digging a canal across the isthmus. All nations 
had seen the great value of such a canal, and France 
attempted it but failed. Finally in 1902 the United 
States prepared to undertake the tremendous task. 

The great question was what was the best route 
for an Atlantic-Pacific canal — across Panama or 
Nicaragua. The matter was decided by a revolu- 
tion. The state of Panama, which had been a part 
of the United States of Colombia since the inde- 
pendence of the South American colonies, desired 
the canal to come to Panama. Being unable to 
secure the consent of Colombia, the people of Pan- 
ama revolted, set up an independent government, 
and sold the United States a strip of land ten miles 
wide across the isthmus. This is known as the canal 
zone, for which the United States agreed to pay 
$10,000,000, with an annual rental of $250,000 for 
the canal privilege. 

When the United States decided to build the 
canal, few places in the world were more unhealthy 
than Panama. Consequently, it was necessary to 

35 



drive yellow fever from the isthmus so that laborers 
might be able to work in safety. This task was 
given General William C. Gorgas of the United 
States army. It was a great task to put on any 
man, but he succeeded so thoroughly that the result 
of his work has had a vast importance for all the 
world and especially for South America. He first 
planned to kill the mosquito, since scientists had 
already shown that mosquitoes convey yellow fever 
and malaria. Three million barrels of oil were 
poured into the swamps and streams, and not only 
the mosquitoes but also their breeding-places were 
destroyed. 

But this was not all that he did. It is said that 
the engineers under his command "cut down each 
year five square miles of brush, drained one-third 
of a square mile of swamp, cut ten square miles of 
grass, maintained 530 miles of ditches, emptied 
1,300,000 cans of garbage and fumigated 11,000,000 
cubic feet of residential space, all to stamp out the 
mosquito" and destroy the breeding-places. It was 
the greatest fight against a disease pest ever waged 
in history, and as a result Panama has become a 
healthy city. 

The task of building the canal went to General 
George W. Goethals. He was placed in charge of 
the work in 1907 and, by August 15, 1914, the canal 
was practically completed at a total cost of about 
$700,000,000. On this date the first vessel carrying 

37 



passengers passed through the great water-way. At 
the Caribbean end is the city of Colon (the Spanish 
name for Columbus ) and at the Pacific end is Pan- 
ama, the capital of the republic. Both cities, though 
partly in the canal zone, belong to the republic of 
Panama. The canal is 43.84 miles long. Begin- 
ning on the Caribbean side, it follows the Chagres 
Biver until the latter stream reaches the mountains. 
By a series of locks, vessels are raised eighty-five 
feet to Gatun Lake. Thence for thirty-two miles 
they move under their own power until they arrive 
at a point where a lake of one hundred and sixty- 
four square miles has been formed. Thence, by 
another series of locks, the boats are lowered to sea- 
level again. 

Panama, therefore, is at the threshold of a new 
life that will give fresh chapters to its history. 
Great merchant vessels go by daily, carrying the 
trade from the east to the west. The most powerful 
war vessels, immense floating arsenals, thunder 
with their guns in formal salute as they sail by on 
their errands of defense. The flags of all nations 
pass in review before the city. Such is the contrast 
between the modern water-way and the mule-road 
over the mountains in the days when the old city 
was famous. 

How did the wealth of Peru find its way to 
Panama and why did the center of Spanish control 
pass from Panama to Peru? This development 

38 



was made possible by the courage of another Span- 
iard, Francisco Pizarro, who carried out the plans 
of Balboa by first discovering and then conquering 
the land of Peru. His story will be told in the next 
chapter. 



39 



CHAPTER III 

pizarro, the great adventurer 

The question naturally arises why did the Span- 
ish colonies in South America develop so rapidly 
in the sixteenth century ? It was chiefly due to the 
tremendous power of Spain, whose sovereigns were 
the greatest rulers of the world in that century. 
Spain in the days of Ferdinand and Isabella had 
not been so strong a nation. Their grandson, 
Charles V., however, was not only king of Spain 
but also ruler of a territory including the Nether- 
lands and much of Italy. Then he was elected 
king of Hungary and emperor of Austria and the 
German states, and later gained by discovery and 
conquest a large part of North and South America. 
He was known as the Emperor Charles V. He 
ruled over a wider territory and a larger population 
than any Christian sovereign had ever before done. 

In 1519, the year in which Charles V. became 
emperor, Cortez landed in Mexico and overthrew 
Montezuma, the ruler of that land, sending to Spain 
a vast quantity of gold. This enabled Charles V, 
to build palaces, raise armies, strengthen his empire, 
and equip other adventurers desiring to explore 

40 



the New World. As was said in a previous chapter, 
England was too weak to compete with such a 
sovereign. France was the next most powerful 
nation, and the only one that could hope to check 
the growing ambition of the young emperor. 

Within a few years of Cortez's conquest of Mex- 
ico, Charles V. was surprised by the news that 
another Spaniard had led an expedition into Peru 
and opened a new country containing immense 
amounts of gold and silver. This was Francisco 
Pizarro, one of the most remarkable men that Spain 
has produced. Through him, Charles V. obtained 
further territory and more gold and silver than 
he had hitherto received from all other sources 
together. 

The life of Francisco Pizarro is a story of pov- 
erty, cruelty, hardship, and distress, followed by 
boundless success. Pizarro was born in Trujillo, 
Spain, about 1471. Few boys have had a more 
unpromising start, and yet few men have played so 
large a part in changing the current of history. 
Pizarro's mother was an ignorant peasant woman 
without a home and without friends. When this 
son was born, the mother, it is said, was lying in 
the doorway of a church by way of shelter. Later 
she and the child were taken to a wretched hovel, 
where the babe was brought up on the coarsest fare. 
His cradle was a bed of straw on the cobble-stone 
floor in a corner of the hut. 

41 



Almost as soon as he could walk, the boy was 
hired out to feed hogs. In this way he got food. 
For every neglect of duty he was mercilessly beaten 
and abused as if he were not a human being. There 
were schools in those days in Trujillo, but the little 
swineherd had no time for learning. Early and 
late he toiled for the bread that barely nourished 
his body and the rags that scarcely covered his 
nakedness. 

Such inhuman treatment usually kills children 
or so hardens them that they turn into criminals. 
Francisco Pizarro did not die from ill-treatment 
and neglect, but his moral nature suffered. Nature, 
no doubt, intended him to be a great man, but the 
cruelties of his youth warped his character so that 
his after life reflected his early training. He grew 
to be hardened and cruel, careless of everything 
but his own interests. 

The brutality of his masters caused him, at the 
age of fifteen, to run away and join the Spanish 
army. The kings of France and of Spain were 
at war in Italy, and Spanish soldiers were being 
shipped there to protect the Italian dominions of 
the Spanish. Pizarro joined one of these expedi- 
tions. His courage, his endurance, and his ability 
attracted the attention of his officers, and before 
the war was over he became a lieutenant. 

After the war he went back with the army to 
Spain. Just at this time Columbus returned from 

42 



his wonderful voyage to the New World, and all 
Spain was thrilled with the stories the discoverer 
told. Young Pizarro, who was then twenty-one 
years old, determined to seek his fortune in America. 
Little is known of his adventures until Balboa 
crossed the Isthmus of Darien and discovered the 
Pacific Ocean. Pizarro made the journey with him 
and took an active part in the expedition. When 
the town of Panama was founded, he bought a 
plantation near it and became a stock-raiser. He 
had a large number of Indian slaves to work his 
fields and tend his cattle. He built a home in 
Panama and for a time lived like a Spanish noble- 
man, while his servants cultivated his land. 

The story of Cortez in Mexico and his conquest 
of that rich country fired the Spaniards with a new 
zeal. Thousands of adventurers were coming to 
the New World every year, and Panama was grow- 
ing rapidly. In such a time of excitement, Pizarro 
was not content to live the easy life of a cattle- 
farmer. He, too, had heard wonderful stories of 
a country far to the south, where gold and silver 
and precious stones were plentiful. At length he 
formed a partnership with a priest named Her- 
nando de Luque and a soldier, Diego de Almagro, 
for the purpose of exploration and conquest. They 
agreed to divide equally among themselves the rich 
empire which they hoped to conquer and about 
which they had heard so many tales. 

43 



Two small vessels were fitted up for the voyage 
and a company of one hundred and twelve men 
was enlisted. By November 14, 1524, everything 
was ready. The governor of the colony, who was 
deeply interested in the success of the expedition, 
and other notables who had invested money in the 
enterprise, went down to the bay to see Pizarro and 
his company off. It was just four years after Cor- 
tez's thrilling conquest of Mexico. The vessels 
moved out of the bay, stopped a while at the Isle 
of Pearls, and then turned southward toward the 
unknown land. After exploring the coast for sev- 
eral days and finding provisions running low, the 
adventurers sent back one of the vessels. The con- 
dition of the voyagers, waiting on the shore, soon 
became desperate. Without provisions, and with 
little hope of obtaining food, their troubles were 
increased by a deadly fever that carried off many 
of them. Moreover, the natives were hostile, and 
some of Pizarro 's men were killed by them. 

The governor of Panama, learning of the hard- 
ships of the party through the vessel that returned, 
sent another ship with supplies and with an order 
for Pizarro to bring his followers back to Panama. 
But Pizarro had no intention of returning until he 
had accomplished his purpose. Drawing a line in 
the sand with his sword, he stepped in front of 
his men and invited all who wished to go back to 
Panama to cross the line. All but thirteen 

44 




Fraxcisco Pizarro 



stepped over the line. They departed to report 
to the governor that Pizarro had disobeyed his 
orders. 

Pizarro and the thirteen faithful were left alone, 
almost without food and among hostile natives. So 
far the expedition had been a failure, and all of 
Pizarro 1 s wealth had been lost in the venture. The 
explorers existed as best they might. They sailed 
out on a raft to an island, where they shot game 
with their cross-bows. For five months they lin- 
gered on this unhealthy island, half-starved and 
with the clothing rotting from their limbs. 

The governor of Panama, angered at Pizarro 's 

45 



disobedience, sent anotner vessel with supplies and 
with positive orders to bring him and his men back 
to Panama. When this craft reached the island, 
Pizarro and his companions hardly looked like civi- 
lized beings. But the adventurer still refused to 
return. Instead, he talked with the newcomers, 
who were full of the spirit of adventure, and at last 
persuaded a small number of them to venture with 
his party further down the coast. Setting out, they 
soon came to a region where they saw natives wear- 
ing gold ornaments. Pizarro was greatly pleased, 
believing that he was near the rich country of which 
he had heard so much. A little later, the eager 
company entered the Gulf of Guayaquil, which 
indents the shores of Ecuador. The prospects there 
were encouraging. Pizarro questioned the natives 
who came down to the shore to meet him. They 
told him that on the coast of the mainland further 
south stood a great city named Tumbez, which 
Pizarro at once determined to visit. 

As the explorers cruised along the coast, a town 
of some size came into view, the sight of which filled 
Pizarro with amazement. He saw a strongly forti- 
fied city, with temples and palaces and aqueducts 
carrying water from the mountains to the houses. 
He saw broad, paved streets, stone buildings, and 
men and women dressed in gay colors and wearing 
rings, bracelets, and chains of pure gold. He mar- 
veled at the sight and learned that he was at last in 

46 



the land of the Incas, the land from which so many 
wonderful stories had come. The city was Tumbez, 

If you will look at the map of South America, 
you will see that Peru extends northward to the 
Gulf of Guayaquil and that Tumbez is situated at 
the northern extremity, near the gulf. The Indians 
of the city were friendly, giving Pizarro plenty of 
food and inviting him to visit their homes. 

After spending several days at Tumbez and visit- 
ing many points of interest, Pizarro decided to 
return and tell the governor of Panama of what he 
had seen. He was determined, also, to carry the 
news to Spain and inform the emperor of the new 
land added to his dominions by this discovery. 

After Pizarro had collected as much gold as he 
could secure without angering the natives and after 
thanking the Peruvians for their kindness and 
promising to come back, he took his departure, 
resolved to return shortly and conquer the country. 
He hastened to Panama. Notwithstanding his 
glowing report, Pizarro secured little encourage- 
ment from the governor of Panama, who remem- 
bered that he had disobeyed orders and sacrificed a 
number of men in order to carry out his plans. Be- 
sides, the governor was jealous of the popularity of 
the new leader. Pizarro, therefore, decided to 
hasten on to Spain, to tell the emperor about Peru. 
He rode across the isthmus, taking with him such 
articles as he had obtained on his voyage, and soon 

47 



was on the sea bound for Spain. He believed that 
when he told his story he could secure sufficient 
help and encouragement to conquer the new coun- 
try and rule over it. 

The emperor was highly pleased at what he 
heard and saw and at once gave Pizarro permis- 
sion to conquer the land and add it to his vast do- 
minions. Moreover, he appointed the discoverer 
governor-general of the new territory. Thus, 
Pizarro was following closely the footsteps of 
Cortez. He was now independent of the governor 
of Panama. 

His next step was to secure men, ammunition, 
horses, and equipment for the great venture that 
he was getting ready to make. There were so many 
things to do and so many difficulties to overcome in 
preparing his expedition that it was nearly six years 
before he saw Tumbez again. When he set sail 
from Spain, he had two vessels and about two hun- 
dred men. There were cannon, which he expected 
to use in overawing the natives, and horses to aid 
in carrying his supplies and in moving swiftly 
across the country. The Peruvians had no horses, 
no cannon, and no muskets. Their weapons were 
spears and bows and arrows. 

On arriving at the isthmus, Pizarro had to un- 
load and transport all his equipment across on 
horseback. But when he entered Panama this time, 
he was equal in power and dignity. to the governor. 

48 



However, he called on the latter and obtained his 
aid for the approaching expedition to Peru. 

His next act was to secure two more vessels. 
This was a difficult task; it is said that he had to 
wait for one of them to be built. When all was in 
readiness, he set sail for Peru. Coming into the 
Gulf of Guayaquil, he reached Tumbez a second 
time (1531). 

Pizarro now had an opportunity to study the 
land of the Incas. He moved cautiously, laying his 
plans for conquest and observing everything care- 
fully. It was a wonderful country the Spaniards 
beheld. They found it hard to believe that all they 
saw was true, that a civilized nation actually existed 
in the world, at such a distance from Europe. It was 
a country which had made considerable progress, 
though the development was so unique that Pizarro 
and his men were puzzled in trying to understand it. 

There were all grades of poverty and a high 
degree of progress. The better class of people 
lived in houses built of stone and had beautiful 
fields irrigated with water brought down from the 
mountains, since there was little rain near the coast. 
The more prosperous people were dressed in fine 
fabrics unlike anything that Europeans wore. 
Around the villages and towns were herds of tame 
cattle different from any the Spaniards had ever 
seen. These were llamas or Peruvian sheep, which 
were used as beasts of burden and for food. 

49 



The Spaniards saw temples of the sun and moon, 
and palaces belonging to the Inca, built of stone 
and containing queer devices of gold and silver and 
hangings of gorgeous cloth. In many places these 
buildings were surrounded by luxurious gardens of 
plants and flowers of every size and color. The 
explorers also saw public baths, filled with water 
brought down from the mountain streams and 
flowing through silver pipes into broad basins of 
shining gold. 

This lavish display of the precious metals made 
the Spaniards stare with wonder. Evidently, the 
Peruvians did not attach the same value to gold and 
silver that the Spaniards did, for the natives freely 
gave the visitors enough of these precious metals 
to make them rich for life. 

As the Spaniards advanced through the country, 
they saw among the lofty crags or dotted over the 
plains busy towns and villages, connected by well- 
constructed roads, some of which ran straight from 
village to village while others zigzaged around 
mountain coves and over ridges. 

There were caravans of llamas moving slowly 
along the roads, carrying provisions or merchan- 
dise. Sometimes as many as a thousand llamas 
were in one train, creeping along with small pack- 
ages on their backs. The Spaniards learned that 
these beasts of burden were very tame and gentle, 
that their flesh was the best of food, and that their 

50 



wool was used for clothing. Moreover, they learned 
that the llamas lived on the wild grass which was 
very plentiful in the villages and thus cost the 
owners nothing for keep. 

There was another sheep closely resembling the 
llama. This was the alpaca. The Spaniards found 
that the rough clothing of laborers, the garments of 
the king, and the dresses of court ladies were made 
from this alpaca wool, which, as we well know, is 
capable of being woven into the finest cloth. 

What astonished Pizarro and his men more than 
anything else was the well-cultivated land, espe- 
cially the wonderful hanging gardens. Students 
have read of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 
which were considered one of the "Seven Wonders 
of the World." The reader may ask, "What is a 
hanging garden?" It is a series of terraces on the 
side of a steep hill or mountain. Those of Babylon 
are said to have been only about seventy-five feet 
high, but the gardens that Pizarro and his men be- 
held were much loftier. One mountain side had 
more than fifty terraces, of ten feet each, which 
thus formed a stairway as high as the Washington 
Monument. 

One writer says, "The sides of the mountain had 
been transformed by long and patient labor into 
terraces which, rising one above the other, as far 
as the eye could reach, support luxuriant gardens 
and farjns, rich in fruits, flowers, shrubs and vege- 

51 



tables of almost every degree of climate and tem- 
perature." 

It is said that these beautiful terraces, built tier 
upon tier up the mountain side, were monuments 
to the rulers. Other nations much older than Peru 
erected great monuments or pyramids, such as are 
found in Rome or Egypt. But the Peruvians, it 
seems, believed that the most glorious memorial a 
king could have was a terrace that produced food 
for those who cultivated it. Which do you think 
had the better idea, the Romans and Egyptians 
or the Peruvians? 

The Spaniards, furthermore, saw fields which 
showed a greater knowledge of agriculture than 
the people of Spain themselves had. The Peru- 
vians understood the value of fertilizer and used 
the guano from the near-by islands. Guano was 
not found by Europeans to have any use until near 
the beginning of the eighteenth century. But the 
Peruvians placed such high value on it as an aid 
to agriculture that they protected the birds that 
made the great deposits. It seems, therefore, that 
the Peruvians had the first laws for protecting 
birds. 

The Peruvians could have given the Spaniards 
valuable lessons in agriculture, if the latter had been 
interested in anything except gold and silver. 
Sometimes; when it was necessary to have water 
for their fields, the natives built long aqueducts; 

52 



sometimes they changed the course of streams, and 
barren lands that never saw any rain were made to 
blossom and yield abundantly. 

Agriculture was more highly developed in the 
land of the Incas than in most of the European 
countries of that day. Peru was the home of the 
potato, both the sweet and Irish. Maize or Indian 
corn was in a better state of cultivation here than 
anywhere else in America. The pineapple, the 
bean, the gourd, the tomato, cotton, and a variety 
of other plants were to be found. In fact, more 
plants seem to have been domesticated in the Peru- 
vian region at that time than in any other section 
of the world. 

But Pizarro was not much impressed by what he 
saw of the native agriculture ; he wanted gold and 
silver. He wanted wealth, which comes most 
quickly through the precious metals. The Peru- 
vians observed that the Spaniards attached a par- 
ticular value to these metals and they began to 
wonder why. They wished to know the purpose 
of these visitors in coming to their land. 

Pizarro and his companions saw a well-governed 
country. The Inca was absolute monarch and his 
word was law, but the people respected his govern- 
ment and honored him. They were honest and law- 
abiding: it is said that it was difficult to find a thief 
among them. The story is told of an Indian who 
had 100,000 pieces of gold and silver stored away 

53 



in his house. The door was never locked; the 
owner, when away, merely left a little stick across 
the door-sill as a sign that he was out ; and nobody 
ever molested his treasure. 

Pizarro realized that he had found a superior 
race of Indians. When he saw that they actually 
did have what appeared to be an unlimited amount 
of gold and silver, he determined to conquer the 
country as soon as possible. He went among the 
Indians in order to learn as much as possible from 
them before making his purpose plain. One sur- 
prise after another greeted him. 

Once while he was riding across the country, his 
horse lost a shoe. As the Spaniards had no iron, 
the natives supplied Pizarro with a metal from 
which a horseshoe was made. It was a shoe of solid 
silver ! 

Pizarro saw paths, from one foot to three feet 
wide, leading from the seacoast to the interior. 
On inquiring, he learned that these paths were the 
special roads for bringing fish to the Inca. The 
ruler ate fresh fish for breakfast but he lived many 
miles from the seacoast. Fish were brought, there- 
fore, by relays of swift runners who covered incred- 
ible distances. A fish would be caught the evening 
before and the runners, stationed at intervals of a 
few miles apart, carried it nearly a hundred miles 
to the Inca. Thus he had fish for breakfast. The 
remains of these foot-paths are still preserved. 

54 



Pizarro heard of the wonderful palaces and baths 
of the Inca, which existed in every important place. 
One was at Quito on the top of a mountain ; one was 
in Chile, and at Lake Titicaca there was a great 
temple with baths of gold. The explorer wished 
to see all these places, but he especially desired to 
visit the capital, Cuzco, which lay somewhat south- 
west of the central part of Peru, several hundred 
miles distant from Tumbez. There lived the Inca, 
Atahualpa. 

What Pizarro and his men beheld on every hand 
exceeded the wonderful stories that had traveled 
up the coast to Panama. But there were other 
sights surpassing those with which they had become 
familiar. The Indians were at first very friendly 
and showed a disposition to give Pizarro and his 
men all the information that the latter could pos- 
sibly desire. The ruling classes seemed to take a 
great pride in their country, and when they saw 
that the Spaniards represented a civilization differ- 
ent from theirs and, in some respects superior, they 
desired the friendship of the foreigners. 

Historians say that for many years there had 
been unrest in this far-away country and that dif- 
ferent pretenders to the throne had been striving 
for supremacy, but that Atahualpa finally 
triumphed. His last conflict was with his brother, 
Huascar, whom he defeated and cast into prison. 
He put to death a number of chieftains who had 

55 



been unfriendly to him. His triumph was complete, 
and when the Spaniards entered the country he was 
the absolute sovereign of a territory almost as large 
as that of Charles V. of Spain. It took in most 
of the Andean country ; it extended southward and 
included northern Chile; eastward, and much of 
Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia; northward, and 
Ecuador, with a capitol at Cuzco, several hundred 
miles southeast of Tumbez. Such was the land of 
the Incas, the land which Pizarro desired to conquer 
for Spain and for himself. 




Llamas Laden With Ore Crossing a River 



56 



CHAPTER IV 

PERU, THE EMPEROR'S TREASURE CHEST 

When Francisco Pizarro arrived in Peru, he had 
no idea of the size or the wealth of Atahualpa's 
country, but he had authority to take possession 
of it and send back to the emperor one-fifth of all 
the precious metals obtained. The remainder was 
to be divided between Pizarro and his men. 

On the landing of the second expedition in Peru, 
the Spaniards presented a different front toward 
the natives from that of their first visit. Even 
before they landed they convinced the Indians that 
their purpose was unfriendly. Before reaching 
Tumbez, Pizarro commanded his men to fire off 
cannon in order to overawe the natives along the 
coast. The threat was successful, for the latter 
were so badly frightened that they all fled. The 
Spaniards found the little villages by the shore 
deserted, and, on entering the abandoned huts, they 
came across food in abundance, besides many 
articles of gold and silver and much fine cloth made 
from alpaca wool. Pizarro put on board the ships 
a considerable portion of the treasures captured 
and sent back to Panama for more men. He be- 

57 



lieved that he had force enough to hold out until 
reinforcements arrived and that he could secure an 
abundance of food in the country. He saw the 
vessels depart and then marched southward. In a 
few days the expedition reached Tumbez, but, to 
the surprise of all, this town also was deserted. 
Most of the buildings had been destroyed, and the 
treasures had been carried away. Pizarro learned 
that Atahualpa, the ruler of all the Peruvians, was 
encamped at Cajamarca, about three hundred miles 
to the south of them. Cajamarca, one of the capi- 
tals of the country, was situated on a mountain 
plateau at an elevation of about 9,000 feet. The 
commander sent De Soto, who later became famous 
for his explorations in North America, with a 
picked body of men, to investigate and report on 
the size of the Inca's army and his purpose. De 
Soto returned after several days, accompanied by 
a messenger from Atahualpa, who extended to the 
visitors a welcome to his kingdom, inviting Pizarro 
to visit Cajamarca. 

The invitation was accepted, and immediately the 
Spaniards began their journey to that place, which 
was even more imposing than Tumbez. Several 
days were spent on the way ; everywhere along the 
line of march the Spaniards saw signs of great 
wealth. 

When Pizarro entered the beautiful valley in 
which Cajamarca lies, as one writer says, "he could 

58 



plainly discern the glistening white houses, the 
fortresses perched upon rocks, and the square 
temples of the town; and, extending his glance 
beyond, he could just see the white tents of the 
Inca's camps, dotting the plain and hillsides in the 
hazy distance." 

A messenger was sent to Atahualpa to announce 
that Pizarro had arrived and that he wished to meet 
the great ruler as "a friend and brother." The Inca 
received the messenger courteously and replied that 
he would visit the Spanish chieftain on the follow- 
ing day and extend a welcome to the pale-face 
soldiers from over the sea. It is probable that the 
Indian emperor was the victim of a fatal curiosity 
to see the newcomers. 

The messengers, returning, reported that they 
had been treated with great kindness by the Inca, 
who seemed well-disposed and very desirous to visit 
Pizarro. They reported also that they had seen 
many articles of fine gold, that the nobles had rich 
ornaments, and that the Inca's meals were served 
in vessels of pure gold. In fact, it was difficult for 
Pizarro to conceive of so much gold in ordinary use 
as his messengers reported. 

The Spanish leader now conceived a bold scheme. 
He announced to his lieutenants that it was his pur- 
pose to take the Inca prisoner when he visited him 
the following day. Remembering that Cortez by a 
bold stroke had captured Montezuma in Mexico, 

59 



Pizarro believed it would be just as easy to seize 
the Inca of Peru; and, holding him captive, he 
might be able to rule the whole country through 
the prisoner. In such a way did the crafty Spaniard 
plan to meet Atahualpa as a "friend and brother." 

Next morning Pizarro drew up his horsemen in 
battle array and formed his foot-soldiers so as to 
make a striking spectacle. Soon messengers an- 
nounced that the royal procession was approaching. 
A little later the Peruvian army was observed 
passing through the city gates. Four hundred 
Indian boys came first, singing as they marched 
at the head of the column. They were followed 
by a thousand men dressed in a uniform of red and 
white squares, like a chess board. Other troops, 
clad in pure white and carrying silver hammers, 
came in large numbers. Then appeared the royal 
personage in regal splendor. Eighty chieftains in 
costumes of azure bore a glittering throne on which, 
high above their heads, sat the Inca, adorned with 
plumes of various colors and almost covered with 
sheets of gold and silver crusted with precious 
stones. Behind him came the chief officers of his 
court, carried in the same manner. Several bands 
of singers and dancers followed, while the whole 
plain seemed to be covered with troops. The Span- 
iards estimated the number of the natives at over 
30,000. 

Pizarro sent a priest to meet Atahualpa and to 

60 



announce that he himself was now the lawful ruler 
of the country, having been appointed to goyern it 
by the greatest monarch in the whole world. Ata- 
hualpa expressed astonishment. He seemed to 
scorn the priest, who shrank back at his gesture of 
disapproval. Thereupon Pizarro gave the signal 
for an attack on the unsuspecting Indians. Imme- 
diately martial music broke forth. The cannon 
roared with a deafening noise and spread death and 
destruction on every hand. The foot-soldiers 
charged with muskets and pikes. Horsemen rushed 
out with fiendish yells. The Peruvians were so 
much astonished and frightened that they fled 
panic-stricken in every direction, except the body- 
guard around the king, which sought to protect him 
to the last. The land of Peru had never witnessed 
such a tumult. Everywhere the Peruvians, seized 
with superstitious fear, rushed hither and thither 
without aim, desiring only to escape the fearful 
noise and massacre. 

It was Pizarro 's order that the king should not 
be hurt. He believed that the people would be 
more impressed if they knew that he was powerful 
enough to capture the Inca with a small force and 
hold him a prisoner rather than kill him. Then, too, 
he might be able to dictate to the people if he had 
the king in his possession. But though the Peru- 
vian army was scattered, it was not easy to take 
the Inca. His body-guards fought desperately. 

61 



However, they were overpowered and slaughtered 
to a man, and Pizarro, pushing his way through the 
carnage, seized the Inca and dragged him away a 
prisoner, while his soldiers, pursuing the Peruvians, 
continued to slay them by thousands. Probably 
there was never a war with less provocation, but 
such was the character of the man who had come to 
rule over this new country. He was without con- 
science and without pity. 

At first the Inca could hardly believe that he was 
a captive. But he soon realized his situation and 
saw that Pizarro was a man who coveted gold and 
silver above everything else. After the confusion 
of battle, the conqueror and his royal prisoner 
entered one of the Inca's palaces. Knowing that 
Pizarro would do anything for gold, Atahualpa 
sought to buy his freedom. This was just what 
Pizarro wanted, for he believed the treasures of the 
country would now be opened to him. 

The two were in a room about twenty -two feet 
long and sixteen feet wide. Atahualpa offered to 
fill this room with gold as high as his up stretched 
arm extended if Pizarro would free him and leave 
the country. Pizarro at once agreed and, drawing 
a line along the wall as far up as he could reach, he 
told Atahualpa to notify his countrymen that when 
the room was filled to that line the latter would be 
set free. If the promise were not kept, however, 
the Inca would be put to death. 

• 62 



Hoping thus to secure his liberty, Atahualpa 
sent messengers throughout the country directing 
the people to bring in the gold. Lines of llamas, 
hundreds long, came bearing the precious metal. 
Men brought it in on their backs; some of them 
walked six hundred miles with it. The time for 
ransom extended into weeks and months, but still 
the bearers came bringing gold. 

The capital, Cuzco, was about thirty days' jour- 
ney south from Cajamarca. This was the greatest 
city of the Incas. It was a rich town with gorgeous 
temples which had, it is said, floors and walls of pure 
gold. Soon after the capture of Atahualpa, Pizar- 
ro's vessels returned from Panama with additional 
troops. He now determined to push on as soon as 
possible to Cuzco. In the meantime, Atahualpa 
had an opportunity to study his captors. The point 
in which they surprised him most was in their ability 
to read and write. He had never seen anything like 
it before. In this one respect he knew the Span- 
iards to be superior to the Peruvians, whose only 
writing was picture-writing. He took so much 
interest in the art of writing that his anguish at 
being a captive was somewhat lessened, and he 
expressed a desire to learn to read and write. 

One day he had one of Pizarro's men write some- 
thing on his thumb-nail. It was the Spanish word 
"Dios," which means God. The Inca then asked 
every soldier that came in what it was, and each 

63 



gave the same answer. This entertained him very 
much. When Pizarro entered, Atahualpa asked 
him what was written on his thumb-nail. Pizarro 
made no reply. It was then that the Inca discov- 
ered that Pizarro could not read. By this he knew 
that his captor was a low-born man. Atahualpa's 
manner toward him changed at once, which made 
Pizarro furious. 

Every day, however, the gold was coming in, and 
the promise of the Inca was on the point of being 
fulfilled. In the meantime, Pizarro had been 
entrenching himself in the country in every way 
possible. Still it seemed necessary to him to get 
rid of Atahualpa. As the captive Inca interfered 
with his plans of conquest, Pizarro decided to have 
him tried for treason on the pretext that he was 
secretly communicating with his followers and stir- 
ring them up to attack the Spaniards. 

Thereupon Atahualpa was brought before a 
court and found guilty of treason. The sentence 
was that he should be burned at the stake, but that 
if he gave up his religion and accepted Christianity 
he would be strangled instead. The unhappy Inca 
could not understand the sentence, but he accepted 
the easier fate. Surrounded by Pizarro 's soldiers, 
he was tied to a stake and choked to death. His 
body was burned. Thus ended the career of the 
greatest ruler of the Indians. 

The news of his execution was carried throughout 

64 



the empire. Before resistance to the cruelty and 
oppression of the Spaniards could be organized, 
Pizarro had a younger brother of Atahualpa 
crowned as Inca in the midst of great pomp and 
ceremony, in order to serve as a tool for his 
government. 

The treasure brought in made the whole army of 
Spaniards rich, even after the emperor's fifth part 
had been set aside. Pizarro's "brother was appointed 
to take it to Spain and deliver it in person to 
Charles V. The Indians submitted readily to the 
new Inca. The use of one language by most of 
the natives in the great empire made it easy for 
Pizarro to clench his conquest. The Indians, accus- 
tomed to obey their rulers, continued to obey after 
the rulers had changed. 

Soon after Atahualpa's death, Pizarro set out to 
take possession of Cuzco. With him went the new 
Inca, whom he treated with great respect in order 
to impress the natives, for he expected to rule the 
Peruvians through him. After a long journe)^, 
covering nearly thirty days, they came to Cuzco, 
the capital. The ruins of that city today tell some- 
thing of its greatness before the conquest. Pizarro 
entered it with no opposition. The Spanish soldiers 
were prohibited from going into private homes, but 
they freely entered the temples and palaces. With- 
out scruple they tore down the golden plates and 
ornaments that adorned the walls and, in their greed 

65 



for gold, invaded the tombs of the dead and robbed 
the corpses. In caverns and in public magazines 
were brought to light a mass of gold vessels and 
strange utensils, fine cloth, golden sandals, and an 
abundance of grain and other food. 

The Spaniards found so much gold that, night 
after night, the soldiers gambled away enough of it 
to enrich the kings of Europe. Pizarro had a huge 
pile of gold vessels and ornaments melted down; 
and again a fifth was set aside and sent to Spain 
for the emperor, who was fast becoming very 
wealthy from the returns from Peru alone. 

Pizarro carried the young Inca into the palace 
of his fathers, where, surrounded by an immense 
crowd of natives, the latter was formally crowned 
ruler of Peru. The natives clamored their approval, 
and the Inca accepted the empty honors, not realiz- 
ing that he was both the creature and the tool of 
the Spaniards. Thus did Peru pass from an inde- 
pendent nation into a province of the Emperor 
Charles V. Nevertheless, it was more than a mere 
province. It was one of the main props of the 
empire. It was a treasure chest, from which the 
emperor drew the wealth that made his court the 
most luxurious in Europe. 

But Pizarro was not destined to enjoy for many 
years the ease and peace that might have come to 
a juster conqueror. He had murdered the rightful 
ruler of Peru. He had massacred thousands of 

67 



natives. He had tortured and put to death priests 
and other officials who stood in his way. He had 
visited the most brutal punishments on those who 
disobeyed him. He had enslaved the Indians and 
made them toil for the Spaniards. Moreover, he 
had not dealt fairly with his own men. Many were 
jealous of his power, and even his highest officials 
questioned his integrity. Therefore, some of his 
own company turned against him and incited the 
Indians to revolt. Pizarro had to fight the Peru- 
vians and, also, a part of the Spaniards themselves. 

Adventurers from Panama, learning of his won- 
derful discoveries, came to Peru. Many of them 
were as conscienceless as Pizarro. Large numbers 
joined the dissatisfied Spaniards in an attempt to 
break his power. Pizarro's early life had soured the 
milk of human kindness in him. He now fought 
his leading lieutenant, Almagro, with the same 
ferocity with which he had fought poverty in his 
youth, and when he made prisoners of Almagro 
and his followers he put them to death. 

The conqueror moved the capital from Cuzco in 
1535 and founded the city of Lima, about six miles 
from the coast. Within a few years the center of 
Spanish control in the New World passed from 
Panama to Lima. For nearly two hundred years 
Lima was not only the capital of the Spanish pos- 
sessions in South America but one of the important 
cities of the world. 

68 



However, Pizarro did not live long after found- 
ing Lima, "The City of the Kings," as it was called. 
Even his own countrymen would not submit to his 
tyranny. He was constantly at war with them as 
well ajs with the natives. He met cruelty with 
cruelty, treachery with treachery. Finally, on June 
26, 1541, deserted even by his formerly faithful 
attendants, he was assassinated in his own palace 
by some of Almagro's followers. Thus ended the 
life of a man who was too brutal and cruel to have 
many friends and too crafty to be a great states- 
man. Yet his conquest laid the foundation of 
Spain's dominion over all South America except 
Brazil. Enough gold was shipped from Peru ta 
enrich a great empire, and it is said that sufficient 
silver was discovered and sent to Europe to encircle 
the globe seven times over had it been minted into 
coins and the coins laid edge to edge. No wonder 
that Peru was called "The Emperor's Treasure 
Chest." 



69 



CHAPTER V 

LIMA, THE CITY OF THE KINGS 

The spot chosen by Pizarro for the new capital 
of Peru was in the beautiful valley of the Rimac 
River, a few miles from its mouth. Here the cool 
currents from the snow-capped mountains and the 
soft breezes from the Pacific meet and produce an 
ideal climate. It was there, in January, 1535, that 
Pizarro founded "the City of the Kings," named 
after the three wise men of the East who came to 
see the infant Christ. Later its name was changed 
to Lima. It has remained the capital of Peru from 
that time to this. 

Lima has been captured by hostile armies sev- 
eral times since its foundation. Sixteen times it 
has been injured by earthquakes, and twice almost 
completely destroyed. Yet it is still a city of nearly 
a quarter of a million population and one of the 
most beautiful and interesting places in the western 
world. 

The gold and silver discovered in Peru and sent 
to Spain drew Europeans to South America by 
thousands. From Peru they crossed the mountains 
and settled in Argentine and Bolivia and Para- 

70 



guay. They moved southward and established col- 
onies in Chile. They stopped on their way to Peru 
and founded settlements in Ecuador, Colombia, 
and Venezuela. 

In 1544, just three years after the death of 
Pizarro, Peru was made a viceroyalty, under a 
ruler called viceroy, which title meant that he was 
acting in all matters for the king. Moreover, he 
was given jurisdiction over "the entire continent 
of South America." Lima, therefore, became the 
capital of all the Spanish colonies in South Amer- 
ica. The city of Panama was eclipsed by the grow- 
ing importance of the City of the Kings, and long 
before there was a single English colony in the 
New World the governor of Peru had become the 
most powerful Spanish ruler next to the monarch 
himself. 

Lima was a typical Spanish city. It was built 
around a great plaza or open square, which was the 
center of the place. Roads extended from it to all 
the provinces, and traders from every part of South 
America brought their wares to the plaza to be bar- 
tered or sold. Lima, therefore, became the great 
meeting-place for all Spanish South America. 
Lines of caravans from the Atlantic coast came 
winding slowly across the pampas of Argentine 
and over the mountains bearing their merchan- 
dise. Negroes from the upper Amazon bore bas- 
kets of cloth and woolen stuff. Indians from the 

71 



mountains and plains and explorers from Ecuador 
and Bolivia brought silver and gold. Farmers from 
Chile came laden with wine and wheat. All met in 
the streets of Lima, the proud capital. 

The viceroy of Peru was the highest civil and 
military officer on the continent. At Lima he had 
a magnificent palace and an elaborate court, which 
rivaled that of the king of Spain. Here the su- 
preme judges of all the continent had their palaces; 
they maintained a style as regal as that of the courts 
of Europe. Likewise, here resided many noble 
Spanish families, whose wealth and social distinc- 
tion gave the City of the Kings much gilded splen- 
dor. Here were large cathedrals and monasteries, 
and here the dreaded tribunal of the Inquisition 
had its chief colonial seat. Here also was situated 
the first university of the New World, that of San 
Marcos, which was opened in 1551, nearly a century 
before Harvard college was founded. It was mod- 
eled after the great University of Salamanca in 
Spain, one of the most famous seats of learning 
in Europe. 

It was in Lima that the Countess of Cinchona, a 
beautiful Spanish lady, was residing in the seven- 
teenth century, when she was stricken with a fever 
that alarmed the capital. The natives told of a 
tree, the bark of which contained a cure for this 
dreaded malady. The physicians of those days had 
not learned the cause of malarial fever, nor had 

72 



they discovered an effective remedy. But they sent 
for this bark, from which a tea was made and given 
to the Countess of Cinchona. She immediately 
began to improve. The tea was very bitter, almost 
too bitter to swallow, but she drank it until she was 
well again. • 

This bark was a more valuable discovery than 
the gold Pizarro found, for it has saved perhaps 
millions of lives from malarial fever. It was the 
substance from which quinine is made, and is known 
as Peruvian bark. The natives were urged to bring 
in more of this bark, which was shipped to Europe, 
to North America, and to. every quarter of the 
globe. Strangers came from all over the world to 
see the trees from which the valuable drug is ex- 
tracted. They learned to grind it and make a fine 
white powder from it, which is called quinine. One 
tree about sixty feet high and six feet in circumfer- 
ence yields, it is said, about a thousand pounds of 
bark and produces about $3,000 worth of quinine. 
A forest of these trees would be worth as much as 
a gold mine. 

The Spaniards had discovered not only the center 
of the world's supply of gold, but the greatest medi- 
cine in the world. Other nations have since trans- 
planted the cinchona tree. India, Java, Algeria, 
and even the United States grow it. For many 
years Peruvian bark collectors made great fortunes 
by selling their product to the different countries 

73 



of the world. Finally, as other nations learned 
to cultivate the cinchona tree, the center of the 
quinine industry passed from Peru. 

Across the mountains to the east were vast areas 
of prairie lands, or pampas, as they are called. 
When the Spaniards first entered «this country, 
there were no horses or cattle on the plains, but 
within a few years the imported stock, turned loose, 
multiplied rapidly. Many escaped from their 
owners into the limitless prairies. Within a century, 
millions of cattle and horses flourished on the rich 
grass and roamed wild over the plains. Nature 
seemed to have given the Spaniards an opportunity 
to found one of the greatest countries in the world. 
Gold, silver, and other precious metals, plants that 
produced effective medicines, a variety of food — all 
abounded here. 

Students will ask the question — why was it that 
from the City of Kings a wise government did not 
extend to all the Spanish colonies? The cause is 
not difficult to find. In the first place, no nation 
at that time had learned to govern its colonies 
wisely. The chief object in founding colonies was 
to enrich the mother country. In the second place, 
no people ever worshipped gold and silver more 
entirely than did the Spaniards. They did not 
migrate in families and seek to build up a great 
nation. Comparatively few Spanish women settled 
in South America, but thousands of Spanish men 

74 



came over and intermarried with the natives or the 
negroes. As a result, a race of half-breeds sprang 
up, on whom the Spaniards looked as inferiors. 
They gave these half-breeds little or no part in the 
government. Thus there was a large population of 
mixed breeds governed by a handful of pure- 
blooded Spaniards. 

The Spaniards, in colonizing a country, planned 
to live in towns or villages, or, if in the country, on 
large estates of which they were lords and masters. 
Usually, they lived in towns and enslaved the na- 
tives, requiring them to cultivate the fields and give 
them the fruits of their labor. The foreigners, other 
than the Spaniards, who came to the country were 
allowed no voice in the government ; the descendants 
from marriages of Spaniards and Indians were 
treated little better than slaves. When a Spaniard 
married a white foreigner, their descendants were 
called Creoles. The latter were also considered 
inferior and were permitted little influence in the 
government. As a result, a large part of the popu- 
lation grew to hate Spanish rule in South America. 
In reality, only the men who had come over from 
Spain had reason to favor it. 

One of the first acts of Pizarro's government 
was to enslave the Indians, who were compelled 
to till the soil but could sell their products only to 
the land-owner on whose estate they lived. Some- 
times they were made to weave and spin, but they 

75 



could buy materials only from the owner. Taxes 
took all their profits, and the land-owners kept them 
always in debt. According to the law, no Indian 
could leave his place of residence so long as he was 
in debt to his master. Not only that, but if he 
should die the debt descended to his children, who 
were held in bondage until it was paid. This system 
of peonage, as it is called, was a great evil. It kept 
the Indians down. 

Moreover, the colonies were held for the benefit 
of Spanish merchants, who bought from the crown 
the right to trade. Manufactured articles made in 
Spain and other articles of merchandise offered for 
sale were distributed among the natives, who were 
required to buy whether they needed them or not. 
On one occasion a vessel brought over a large quan- 
tity of spectacles. Now the Indians had no need 
of spectacles, but a law was passed to the effect 
that after a certain date the Indians in a whole 
province must wear spectacles while attending 
church. The poor natives had to obey. Silk stock- 
ings, fine clothing, and other articles of luxury 
which they did not need, were likewise sold to 
them, and they were required to work out the cost. 
Many Spanish traders who came over poor re- 
turned home after a few years with considerable 
wealth. 

Protests made by the natives did not bring relief 
but, as a rule, resulted in punishment. The Indians 

76 



were required to work in the mines, and if they 
failed to perform their tasks they were flogged 
almost to death. It did no good to appeal to the 
courts, for the judges were Spaniards. The natives' 
only hope lay in revolt, which was frequent, though 
the armed forces of the government were able to 
keep down rebellion. After every rising, the lead- 
ers were massacred and slavery was more strongly 
entrenched than ever. 

So grasping and merciless were masters that In- 
dians working in the fields in the midst of plenty 
would beg bread from people passing by. "On the 
plantations," says one writer, "in the factories and 
in the mines, were usually three taskmasters who 
had constant supervision over the works. They 
were the overseer, his assistant, and his foreman. 
Each taskmaster holds his own scourge without 
letting it fall from his hands the whole day long. 
When one had done any wrong, he was stripped 
and laid on his face and beaten until his body was 



in sores." 



As the local rulers tyrannized over the Indians, 
so the higher rulers tyrannized over the whole body 
of inhabitants. The lot of the Indians was bitterly 
hard, but the Europeans who had made their homes 
in Peru did not escape. The cruelty and inhuman- 
ity of the rulers, both civil and religious, were de- 
structive of efforts to found a just government. The 
rulers needed money for their extravagant manner 

77 



of living and they shaped the laws so as to make 
every province contribute its share of plunder. 

This was only following the example of the 
mother country, which framed its laws so as to make 
Peru contribute to its wealth. The inhabitants of 
the colonies were prohibited from cultivating the 
products that Spain wished to export to Peru, The 
result of these repressive laws was that the country 
did not prosper and produce the best type of citi- 
zens. Just as the government of Peru found many 
ways to cheat the home country, so the provinces 
found many ways to cheat the government of Peru. 
These acts of injustice produced a people either 
crafty and vicious, or patriotic and rebellious. 

The king of Spain, about the beginning of the 
eighteenth century, went so far as to order all the 
factories in Peru manufacturing cloth or other 
products of domestic use in competition with Span- 
ish manufacturers to be destroyed. Notwithstand- 
ing such laws, the country was so rich in natural 
resources that it drew large numbers of settlers. 
On the Atlantic coast, near the mouth of the Rio 
Plata, a thriving town was growing. This was 
called Buenos Aires because of its delightful cli- 
mate. But Buenos Aires, although far nearer 
Spain than Lima, was under the viceroy of Peru 
and was prohibited by law from trading directly 
with the mother country. Throughout the Argen- 
tine, many other prosperous towns were springing 

78 




Lima 

up. Some of these had been founded by adven- 
turers from Peru, others by settlers from Buenos 
Aires. Yet the law compelled them to send their 
products across the mountains to Lima. The alter- 
native was to carry on an illegal trade with Brazil 
or other foreign countries. 

The distance from Buenos Aires to Lima, by the 
overland route, was about 2,800 miles. Yet this 
route, long as it was, by the middle of the eighteenth 
century had become very important. Although 
there were comparatively few settlements along the 
way, posthouses were kept for the convenience of 
the travelers, where they might obtain food and 
horses to continue their journey. 

79 



If you will take the map, you may trace this long 
overland commercial route from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific. Beginning at Buenos Aires, it led north- 
west through Cordoba, Tucuman and Salta in Ar- 
gentine; then it continued up the mountains into 
what is now Bolivia, through Potosi and La Paz; 
then over the Andes and through Cuzco, the ancient 
capital of the Incas, and thence to Lima. Nearly 
a year was required to make the round trip of 5,600 
miles. 

A glance at the map of South America is suffi- 
cient to convince any thoughtful student that such 
a government as that at Lima could not forever 
hold under one authority the people of Peru, 
Bolivia, Chile, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, 
Paraguay, and Uruguay. Revolution was inevi- 
table at some time or other. 

As in Argentina and Paraguay, little gold was 
found in Chile. This was an agricultural country 
but the people had to sell their products in Peru. 
The only two provinces that were even partly inde- 
pendent of Peru were Venezuela (called the Cap- 
tain-Generalcy of Caracas) and Colombia (called 
New Granada). 

Such was Spanish rule in South America and such 
was the government that emanated from the City of 
the Kings. No wonder that the people rebelled 
and broke the power of Spain in the New World ! 



80 



CHAPTER VI 

SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND THE 
DECLINE OF SPAIN 

The great empire of Charles V. began to decay 
at his death. In 1581 his son Philip II., who had 
succeeded to the throne of Spain but not the Ger- 
man Empire, lost the Netherlands, which began to 
develop as the Dutch Republic. At the same time 
England under Queen Elizabeth was making 
progress as a naval and commercial nation. Philip 
hated Elizabeth and made war on England. He 
equipped a vast fleet, in 1588, known as the Spanish 
Armada, for the purpose of invading England and 
conquering it. 

Sir Francis Drake was one of the daring sea cap- 
tains of England who, with a far inferior squadron, 
defeated the Armada in a great fight in the English 
Channel. Thus the commercial supremacy and 
naval strength of Spain were broken and the ascen- 
dency of England as a sea power and commercial 
nation dates from that time. Sir Francis Drake 
was now free to prey on Spanish vessels wher- 
ever he might find them; he voyaged frequently 
to the Spanish Main, making rich captures and 

81 



carrying much of the wealth of South America to 
England. 

The time had at last come for England to estab- 
lish colonies in the New World, since her great 
rival was no longer able to oppose her vigorously. 
Students of United States history will remember 
how Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to make settle- 
ments in what is now North Carolina. At that time 
England, as well as the other nations of Europe, 
was not much interested in North America, since 
little gold had been found in that continent. 

Sir Walter Raleigh, after his colony failed in 
North America, fell into disgrace at the English 
court. He was also in straits for money. There- 
fore, he determined to go in search of the far-famed 
city of Manoa, or El Dorado, in the Amazon coun- 
try — that fabled city guarded by female warriors, 
dressed in glittering garments of sheets of gold. 
The entrance to this golden land was supposed to 
be by means of the Orinoco River. Columbus had 
sailed along this coast; Amerigo Vespucci had 
visited it and written about it; Spanish explorers 
had entered the river and brought back some gold, 
but none had found the city which was supposed 
to be richer than Mexico and Cuzco. 

Sir Walter Raleigh determined to make the at- 
tempt and if possible retrieve his fortunes and re- 
store himself as court favorite. Consequently, in 
1595, he sailed for South America on a voyage of 

82 



exploration with a view to conquest. He reached 
the mouth of the Orinoco and spent several months 
in exploring the river and the coast of Guiana. He 
was even less successful than the Spaniards in find- 
ing gold in this region. However, on returning, he 
followed the example of Amerigo Vespucci and 
published an account of his voyage, The Discoverie 
of Guiana. It was an entertaining narrative, but 
the people of England did not believe his story. 

After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, 
Raleigh was arrested by her successor, James I., for 
an alleged conspiracy against the new king. James 
was friendly to Spain, while Raleigh had always 
been an enemy of the Spanish. His trial in 1603 
ended in a verdict of guilty, and he was sentenced 
to death, though the execution was delayed for 
many years. The adventurer still believed the tales 
of Manoa, the golden city somewhere in Guiana, 
and he promised King James, who was in great need 
of money, that, if restored to freedom, he would 
find it and make the English monarch as rich as the 
king of Spain. 

King James thought enough of the stories circu- 
lated in Europe to try the venture. He believed it 
possible for Raleigh to succeed. However, the 
Spanish ambassador in England warned James I. 
that Spain claimed the land Raleigh intended to 
enter and that an exploring party in the Orinoco 
region would trespass on Spanish possessions. 

83 



James was in want of money, but he had no desire 
to become involved in difficulties with the king of 
Spain, who was still a very powerful monarch. He, 
therefore, assured the Spanish ambassador that if 
Raleigh should be guilty of piracy or of any hostile 
acts against Spanish authority Sir Walter would 
be executed on his return. Raleigh promised King 
James not to attack Spanish vessels or seize Spanish 
territory. On March 17, 1617, he set sail a second 
time for South America, taking his son with him. 

It was generally believed that a descendant of 
the Inca lived in the interior of Guiana near a lake 
where immense quantities of gold were to be found. 
On the banks of this lake there was rumored to 
stand a city whose houses were covered with sheets 
of gold, while in the royal palace the king and queen 
had gold dust sprinkled on their bodies, so that they 
were actually clothed with it. But Raleigh never 
found Manoa. The ill-fated expedition reached 
the mouth of the Orinoco River on the last day of 
1617. Raleigh had been stricken with fever on the 
voyage. As he was too ill to proceed, he remained 
at Trinidad, but sent five small vessels up the Ori- 
noco. His son accompanied the expedition. As 
they sailed up the river, seeking information from 
the natives, they found a small Spanish settlement. 
Now, wherever Spaniards and Englishmen met in 
the New World a fight was inevitable. When the 
English expedition came in sight of the Spanish 

84 



colony, the Spaniards opened fire. The result was 
that, notwithstanding Raleigh's warning to the 
party to turn back from Spanish settlements, a 
fierce fight ensued. The Spaniards were defeated, 
but Raleigh's son was killed. 

Meeting no further resistance, the expedition con- 
tinued. The natives, who always fed the imagination 
of explorers, whether in North America or South 
America, with what explorers liked to hear, told 
them that a race of people higher up the river had 
an abundance of gold. The Englishmen, therefore, 
continued upstream for some distance farther. 

All at once they beheld what seemed to be the 
golden tribe they sought. They saw the natives 
moving about through the forests, dressed in shin- 
ing garments apparently of gold or silver, they 
could not tell which. The English were carried 
away with joy, for they had at last found the object 
of their desire. Imagine their disappointment 
when they learned what the natives really wore! 

Investigation showed that the Indians covered 
their bodies with turtle fat and then stuck thin 
sheets of mica over them, thus presenting a truly 
dazzling appearance. This was probably done to 
protect them from mosquitoes, which were terribly 
annoying in that region. The insects were so 
harmful that even the Indians, tough as their hides 
were, had to devise some means to defend them- 
selves. They hit upon mica. 

85 



*» r *. 


j*: ■-: ' -^H 








I 1 






H 


f 


: E : - , \5 ; :;"''fl^>si-i,; 


•J 


:: ?lll 




JljpJ 

ttfBgg 



A Street in Caracas 



The expedition met with nothing but failure. 
No gold was discovered; provisions were running 
low, and it became necessary to return. When the 
party reached Trinidad, they found Sir Walter 
Raleigh still sick and weak. They told him of 
their fight with the Spaniards and the death of his 
son. Raleigh reproached them for disobeying 
orders, realizing that their act had sealed his own 
doom and possibly that of the entire expedition. 

The leader of the expedition up the Orinoco, not 
caring to return to England, at once committed 
suicide, and for days it seemed as if there would 
be a mutiny among the men. Many did not desire 

86 



to go back to England, fearing what their fate 
would be. But after much confusion and delay, 
the English went home. 

King James was disappointed because Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh had failed to find gold. Moreover, he 
was infuriated because the expedition had attacked 
a Spanish colony. As the king was under the in- 
fluence of the Spanish ambassador, he assured the 
latter that Raleigh should pay the penalty for his 
disobedience ; shortly after he ordered the execution 
of the famous explorer. On October 29, 1618, Sir 
Walter Raleigh was beheaded. It still appeared 
that Spain had the power to check the colonial 
growth of England. 

Thus ended the career of the man who first 
sought to erect England's dominion in the New 
World. Largely as a result of his ventures, a per- 
manent English colony had been planted on Amer- 
ican soil. This was at Jamestown in 1607. Later, 
the Dutch secured a foothold in South America 
near the mouth of the Orinoco River. In the same 
section of the continent, the French and English 
also occupied land, and English, Dutch, and French 
Guiana remain as the result of these seizures. 

The appearance of the English, French, and 
Dutch in the New World at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century marks the decline of the mari- 
time supremacy of Spain and Portugal; the center 
of interest gradually shifted from South America 

87 



to North America. What was the purpose of these 
nations in establishing colonies? It was either to 
secure gold and other metals, or to set up centers 
of trade and commerce for the benefit of the mother 
country. It became the policy of the English to 
establish trade centers and agricultural settlements 
rather than to hunt gold. 

England, France, and the Dutch Republic all 
made settlements in America and in India in the 
seventeenth century. They engaged in the slave 
trade, just as Spain and Portugal had done in the 
sixteenth century, in order to secure laborers to 
cultivate the land. Great commercial companies 
developed ; each nation was ambitious to conquer as 
much of the world as possible and build up an 
empire that would increase the wealth of the mother 
country. Such were the motives that prompted 
them to found settlements in America, India, 
Africa, and elsewhere. 

This rivalry for commercial supremacy continued 
throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies. At length in 1763, England definitely 
triumphed over France and took nearly all of the 
French possessions in North America and India. 
This struggle was known in Europe as the Seven 
Years' War and in America as the French and 
Indian War. England emerged as the greatest 
naval and commercial nation in the world. 

But no European nation had yet learned how *o 

88 



govern its colonies. Spain had failed ingloriously. 
England also failed, as the people of the United 
States well know, because the thirteen English 
colonies revolted in 1776 and secured their inde- 
pendence, creating the first independent nation in 
the New World. 

The English colonists in North America did not 
intermarry with the Indians and negroes as the 
Spanish colonists had done. Being mainly of one 
race, they were able to cooperate in a supreme effort 
to free themselves from the tyranny of English rule, 
and, after independence had been won, to unite and 
form a representative government that was success- 
ful from the start. The Spanish colonists were 
composed of a mixture of races, one class hating 
another class as much as the government itself. 
Thus, the different groups of colonists of that con- 
tinent could not unite as readily as the English 
colonists had done. 

Yet a number of South Americans looked with 
great admiration upon the leaders of the thirteen 
English colonies. Some of them volunteered their 
services and fought under George Washington, 
who became their ideal patriot and military leader. 
After independence was won, these South Ameri- 
cans began to dream of independence for their own 
continent and they never ceased to work until their 
dreams came true. 

The revolution begun in North America did not 

89 



end there. Oppressed peoples in Europe sought to 
break the tyranny of their rulers, and France be- 
came the center of a still fiercer revolution. The 
king of France was beheaded. Then arose the 
greatest military leader, perhaps, the world has ever 
seen, Napoleon Bonaparte. He organized the 
French armies, took possession of the government, 
and soon brought Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, 
and Prussia under his power. Finally, all these 
nations combined against him, because his tremen- 
dous power had disturbed the equilibrium of the 
world ; England, being the strongest of the nations 
in the alliance against Napoleon, took the lead. Yet 
for a time it seemed as if no power on earth could 
overthrow him. 

In 1808 he completely humbled Spain, and its 
king was compelled to abdicate. It was at that 
moment that the Spanish colonies in South America 
struck for freedom, when Spain was powerless to 
check them. The regent of Portugal fled before 
the armies of Napoleon and established his throne 
at Rio de Janeiro. This kept Brazil from revolting, 
because the Brazilians, for the most part, were glad 
to have their ruler live with them. The combined 
forces of Napoleon's enemies were able finally to 
defeat him at Waterloo in 1815, and each nation 
conquered by him regained its former independ- 
ence. Great Britain was mistress of the seas and 
possessed more colonies in North America, Africa, 

90 



and India than all other nations combined. The 
Spanish colonies in South America, however, by 
this time had made so much progress toward free- 
dom that Spain was unable to regain them. This 
was the final blow that left Spain one of the weaker 
nations of Europe. 

What was the organization of the Spanish colo- 
nies when they struck for freedom? The continent 
of South America, outside of Brazil and Guiana 
in the northeastern corner of the continent, be- 
longed to Spain and was divided into three vice- 
royalties. The oldest was the viceroyalty of Peru, 
which until 1718 embraced all the territory on the 
continent belonging to Spain. In that year the 
viceroyalty of New Granada was created. This 
included what are now Venezuela, Ecuador, and 
Colombia. In 1776, the viceroyalty of the de la 
Plata River was created, embracing all of South 
America south of Brazil and east of the Andes 
mountains. 

At the beginning of the revolt of the Spanish 
colonies, therefore, there were three viceroyalties, 
all independent of each other but subject to the king 
of Spain. The ruler of each was a viceroy, and the 
territory under him was divided into provinces or 
captain-generalships, under captain-generals. 

It is interesting to note that the revolt began in 
each viceroyalty in the same year, 1810, and almost 
at the same time. The first outbreak was in Vene- 

91 



zuela, in the viceroyalty of New Granada; the sec- 
ond in Argentine, in the viceroyalty of the de la 
Plata River; and the third in Chile, in the vice- 
royalty of Peru. 

The chief leader of the revolt was Francisco 
Miranda, a native of Caracas, in Venezuela. His 
teachings stirred the young men of South America. 
Simon Bolivar, the leader of New Granada, Jose 
San Martin, the leader of Argentina, and Bernardo 
O'Higgins, the leader of Chile, were students and 
disciples of Miranda, and the story of the revolution 
may be told in the life histories of these four pa- 
triots. Pew men have displayed more heroism and 
exhibited a finer patriotism than these leaders, all 
of whom, with the exception of Miranda, lived to 
see the independence of their countries secured and 
yet died in exile. 



92 



CHAPTER VII 

HOW AN EARTHQUAKE STOPPED 
MIRANDA'S REVOLUTION 

The Spanish colonists had great cause for hating 
the mother country. However, Spanish soldiers 
were always able to crush revolts until the mother 
country fell under the power of Napoleon Bona- 
parte. Patriotic leaders in South America who 
had aided the English colonies in North America 
to secure their independence waited for the proper 
moment to strike for freedom. As was mentioned 
before, the first province in South America to act 
was Venezuela. It was favorably situated, occu- 
pying the northernmost part of the continent and 
lying on the great highways of the New World. 
Being near the United States, it was most affected 
by the War for Independence and by the great 
arguments for human freedom that were in- 
fluencing all the nations of the civilized world. 
The name Venezuela, meaning little Venice, was 
given to the province because the Spaniards saw in 
the country along the coast a likeness to beautiful 
Venice in Italy. Its capital, Caracas, situated in 
the mountains, is today one of the most picturesque 

93 



and naturally beautiful cities of the entire world. 
Venezuela was considered by Spain as her most 
valuable province next to Peru. 

One of the foremost patriots of South America 
was Francisco Miranda, who was born in Caracas 
in 1754. He had watched the early struggles of 
the thirteen English colonies and was electrified 
by their action in 1776, when they declared them- 
selves independent. He looked upon the Declara- 
tion of Independence as the greatest liberty docu- 
ment ever written. He was a student of the polit- 
ical literature of North America and Europe, and 
he, too, became convinced that all men are created 
free and equal and that it is their right and duty to 
fight for freedom whenever it is denied them. 
Stirred by the heroism of George Washington and 
the other American patriots, he determined to lend 
his assistance to the Venezuelan rebels in their fight 
for freedom. 

Miranda was in Paris when Benjamin Franklin 
persuaded the French to aid the North American 
colonists. He secured permission to go with the 
French army to America, and he entered at once 
on the service, fighting against the English until 
the independence of the thirteen colonies was won. 

The success of the revolution in North America 
inspired Miranda with a belief that the colonies of 
South America might likewise win their independ- 
ence. He remained in the United States in order 

94 



to plan a great revolution on the southern conti- 
nent. Spain had aided the English colonies in 
securing their independence, not because she loved 
them but because she hated England. In this 
respect Spain and the colonies of North America 
were a unit. As a consequence, when Francisco 
Miranda sought aid in the United States against 
Spain, the new government would not give him 
assistance because it might break the recent friend- 
ship. Moreover, Spain still held Florida, and any 
hostile action on the part of the United States 
against that power would involve the republic in 
a dangerous war. Miranda became so active that 
the Spanish government took notice of it, and the 
United States had to request him to leave the coun- 
try for fear that he would bring it into serious diffi- 
culties with Spain. 

From America, Miranda went to France and 
joined the revolutionists of that country. He was 
given the command of a brigade and so distin- 
guished himself that he was promoted for bravery. 
However, in France the revolutionists had not then 
found a great leader. One party after another 
rose to power, and Miranda was arrested and tried 
for treason but acquitted. He finally fled from 
France to England, where he sought to interest the 
government in the liberation of Venezuela from the 
Spanish yoke. 

While in London, he gathered around him a 

95 



group of patriotic young South Americans who 
had gone to Europe to complete their education. 
These students read his pamphlets, visited him in 
England, and became members of his secret organi- 
zation, the chief purpose of which was to break the 
power of Spain in the New World. 

It was customary for wealthy Spaniards in South 
America to send their sons to Spain to be educated. 
Thither came Simon Bolivar from Caracas, San 
Martin from the Plata country, and O'Higgins 
from Chile. These and many other South Ameri- 
cans were attracted to Miranda in England; they 
visited him and became so fired by him that they 
never forgot his teachings. 

Miranda, however, soon became an unwelcome 
guest in England, because England needed Spain's 
assistance in overthrowing Napoleon. He did not 
dare, of course, to go to Spain; but he visited Aus- 
tria and Prussia, where his doctrines of liberty were 
not well received. Finally, he decided to return to 
Venezuela and make an attempt at insurrection on 
his own account. In 1805, by the aid of some citi- 
zens of the United States who appreciated his Revo- 
lutionary War services, he equipped a vessel. With 
the help of some sailors loaned by an English 
admiral, Sir A. Cochrane, who was later to play an 
important part in the South American war for 
independence, Miranda began his rebellion at Cara- 
cas. There he proclaimed a new republic, calling 

96 



it Colombia in honor of the great discoverer. His 
opening efforts were crowned with some success; 
but the English withdrew their men, who returned 
to fight Napoleon, and Miranda's first attempt 
-failed. 

The condition of the Spanish colonies at that time 
was deplorable. Spain was sinking to ruin but still 
grasping at her possessions. The viceroys were 
determined to crush the revolt at any cost. It 
meant death to a Creole to protest in any way 
against injustice and oppression. The people 
everywhere were ready to rise against the cruelty 
of the viceroys, who were seeking to hold the col- 
onies together until Spain could recover from the 
European wars and reassert her power. Only a 
spark was needed to fire the powder. 

In 1810, when Napoleon's army had about con- 
quered Spain, Miranda again landed in South 
America and secured a large following. He pro- 
claimed a republic in Venezuela and one also in 
New Granada or Colombia. It was Miranda's idea 
for all the South American colonies to form a fed- 
eral republic in the same manner as the English 
colonies in North America composed the United 
States. 

This plan was hateful to many who did not wish 
to unite under one government It awoke the self- 
ishness of the leaders of the several provinces in the 
north. They were unable to unite in a common 

97 



interest as the thirteen English colonies had done, 
for the leaders in the different colonies were jealous 
of the power that the head of such a confederacy 
might secure. Thus South American patriotism 
was local and narrow. 

However, Venezuela received Miranda with en- 
thusiasm and, on July 5, 1811, it declared itself 
free and independent of Spain. An attempt had 
been made to reach this decision on July 4, the 
anniversary of the independence of the United 
States, but there was a delay of a day. 

Miranda was given an ovation by the new gov- 
ernment, which appointed him lieutenant-general 
of the army. He was looked upon as the man of 
the hour. Appointed with others to draw up a con- 
stitution, he took as a basis the Constitution of the 
United States and devised a plan for the federation 
of all the colonies of South America in one nation. 

As a result of this plan, not only did Spanish 
sympathizers everywhere rise in opposition but 
patriotic leaders who were jealous of Miranda's 
position opposed his plans. Affairs became so 
critical that he was appointed dictator of the new 
government. The boldness of his scheme, however, 
had struck terror to all faithful servants of Spain. 
That anyone could raise his hand against the Lord's 
anointed, as the king of Spain was called, shook 
the superstitious minds of the people ; many priests 
who remained loyal to the king declared that inde- 

99 



pendence was contrary to the will of heaven. How- 
ever, a number of high officials of the church were 
true patriots and did not seek to excuse the tyranny 
of the king or the cruelty of the viceroys. 

The cause of the revolutionists prospered for 
some time. The first year of independence was 
about to close with good prospects of ultimate suc- 
cess. Then an unexpected calamity upset all the 
plans of the patriots. The spring of 1812 had 
opened and the Easter festival was at hand. Men, 
women, and children were rejoicing in the streets 
of Caracas in the new age that seemed about to 
dawn. March 26 was Holy Thursday, and exten- 
sive preparations were made for the celebration of 
the next day, Good Friday, a day that would usher 
in a happy future for South America. 

The churches were thronged with worshipers. 
In the middle of the afternoon, which was exces- 
sively hot, drops of rain began to fall. The atmos- 
phere became oppressive. In the great cathedral, 
the people, in holiday dress and filled with religious 
enthusiasm, were assembled. A little before four 
o'clock, the vesper hour, when the service was to 
begin, the world suddenly seemed to come to an end. 
One writer, describing this awful scene, says : 

"At seven minutes past four, when the solemn 
services in the churches were beginning, the earth 
seemed to reel. There was a fearful crash, followed 
by a deep sound as of thunder. It came not from 

100 



the sky, but from the caverns below. The people 
started up. What was happening? Where? They 
felt their feet unsteady, and in the tremor buildings 
were crumbling, melting away as it were. People 
ran hither and thither calling on Heaven for mercy. 
The beasts sought the caves. Birds screamed 
af right in the air." 

Buildings, great pillars, and heavy walls quickly 
crumbled away; 30,000 people perished. Caracas 
was not the only sufferer: town after town was 
destroyed. Some disappeared; the town of San 
Felipe was totally swallowed up. Its houses, pub- 
lic buildings, and inhabitants were never seen again. 
The survivors fled to the fields and wandered about, 
lamenting and praying. No one knew what mem- 
bers of his family or friends were saved. Many 
families were parted. Husbands never saw wives 
again; little children, their parents ; men and women 
were swallowed up alive in awful caverns in the 
earth. 

In the church of San Jacinto, the groans of the 
dying arose on every hand. The priests, in great 
alarm, told the people that it was the curse of God 
visited upon them for their sin in revolting against 
the king. Amidst the ruins of the once magnificent 
cathedral of Caracas, the people rended the heavens 
with their lamentations and cries for mercy. 
Frightened priests called all to repentance for their 
sin of rebellion, the consequences of which might be 

101 



visited upon their children and their children's chil- 
dren. On all sides the people hearkened to the 
invitation of the priests and poured out their curses 
on the patriot leaders who had led them to this 
calamity. 

Suddenly a young officer rose above the stricken 
multitude and, standing on a broken pillar, raised 
his voice loud enough for all to hear. "It is not the 
wrath of God, but an earthquake !" he shouted. The 
people gazed at him in astonishment. "This is 
merely an act of nature," the young officer con- 
tinued. "The cause of the patriots is just, and if 
nature opposes herself we will wrestle with her 
and compel her to obey." 

The priests exclaimed that this was sacrilege, and 
the people applauded the priests. The young offi- 
cer was Simon Bolivar, who had been serving under 
Miranda. Finding himself unable to check the 
influence of the hostile priests, he directed his 
efforts to relieving the distressed. 

Out in the streets whole regiments of Miranda's 
army had been swallowed up. The patriots were 
thrown into the wildest confusion. The terrified 
people, ignorant and superstitious, believed the 
words of the priests and turned against the leaders 
of the patriotic army. The royalists took courage 
at once and made capital of the mob's superstitious 
fears. The morale of the patriots was completely 
broken. In battle after battle they were defeated, 

102 




Miranda in Prison 

and four months later Miranda himself was cap- 
tured. The officials sent him to Spain to be tried 
for treason. There he was confined in a loathsome 
dungeon, where he died on July 14, 1816. 

The seeds of revolution, however, had been too 
deeply planted to be destroyed. They were destined 
later to spring up in new life and break forever 
the Spanish rule in South America. 

The teachings of Francisco Miranda, as was said 
before, converted three young South Americans 
who were to lead the continent to freedom by break- 
ing the power of Spain. One was Simon Bolivar 
of Caracas, destined to carry on in Venezuela the 
work begun by Miranda. Another was Jose San 
Martin, a Creole of Argentina, who was to become 

103 



the liberator of the southern provinces; and the 
third was Bernardo O'Higgins, "The Father of 
Chile." The first two were to meet on the shores 
of the Gulf of Guayaquil, where Pizarro landed 
and planted the Spanish flag. There they were to 
unite their forces and banish that flag as an emblem 
of authority on the southern continent. 



104 



CHAPTER VIII 

SAN MARTIN 

It has already been stated that all of South 
America except Brazil was under the rule of the 
viceroy of Peru until the eighteenth century. 
Everything possible was done to make the different 
Spanish provinces contribute to the prosperity of 
Peru and the court at Lima. However, several 
towns of importance were springing up in the Plata 
country which looked more and more to trade on 
the Atlantic, not the Pacific, for their prosperity. 
The principal one was Buenos Aires, destined to be 
the greatest city of the continent. 

So important was this Plata country becoming 
that, in 1776, the king of Spain, separating what 
are now Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argen- 
tina from Peru, created the viceroyalty of Bio de la 
Plata. This was done chiefly for the purpose of 
forming a government on the Atlantic to check the 
growth of the Portuguese in Brazil, which province 
embraced about half of the continent and was 
threatening to push southward across the Plata. 
When the war for independence began, this 
territory was known as the United Provinces of 

105 



Rio de la Plata. It was not until 1860 that the 
young nation adopted the name of the "Argentine 
Republic." 

The government of Spain had waited too long to 
give needed relief to this part of the continent. 
Misrule had destroyed the affection of the people 
for the mother country. Therefore, when the fires 
of revolution were kindled and the hope of inde- 
pendence stirred in the hearts of the people, Argen- 
tina was the second province to revolt from the 
mother country. This section of South America, 
like Venezuela, had been greatly stirred by the suc- 
cess of the United States. Moreover, the teachings 
of General Miranda had strengthened the deter- 
mination of the people to throw off the Spanish 
yoke. They saw their opportunity when Napoleon 
Bonaparte was at war with Europe and held Spain 
in his power. After Venezuela led the way, Buenos 
Aires and the Plata country followed within a few 
weeks. The North and the South moved almost 
at the same time for independence. Would the 
patriots of the two sections of the continent unite 
their forces and break the hated rule of Spain in 
South America or would they keep apart and fail? 

Argentina was without an army. A group of 
leaders had organized bands of citizens into fight- 
ing forces, but there was little unity of purpose. 
The soldiers were undisciplined and without a rec- 
ognized leader. This was the state of affairs on 

106 



March 9, 1812, when Jose de San Martin, a veteran 
of the European wars, landed at Buenos Aires. 

San Martin was born in the upper part of the 
Rio de la Plata valley, in what is now Paraguay, 
on February 25, 1778. His father was Captain 
Juan de San Martin, a Spaniard of rank. His 
mother, however, was a Creole, and the son, not 
being wholly of Spanish blood, was classed as a 
Creole. It has been stated before that a Creole was a 
descendant of Spanish and foreign parents — for in- 
stance, the son of a Spanish father and of an Eng- 
lish, French, German, or Italian mother would be a 
Creole. The children of such parents did not rank 
socially with full-blooded Spaniards. 

When San Martin was eight years old, he was 
carried to Spain to be educated, and the lad received 
the best military training that the country afforded. 
At an early age he entered the service of Spain and 
fought in its defense. While serving as an officer 
in the Spanish army, he learned of the teachings of 
General Miranda and was converted to his philoso- 
phy. He, therefore, joined one of the secret socie- 
ties pledged to work for the independence of South 
America. 

The young patriot was just thirty-four years old 
when he arrived in Buenos Aires. When he landed, 
few people noticed the thin, serious-looking stran- 
ger. His appearance — dark complexion, with long, 
dark lashes and heavy eyebrows, large black eyes, 

107 



small mouth, and long nose — was not unlike that o% 
the Creoles to whom he was related. His heavy chin 
and jaw were noticeable; and his rough voice, quick 
and commanding, always attracted attention. This 
quiet, modest, sad-faced newcomer was to exert 
more influence in South America than any man 
since Pizarro, though in a very different way. 

On his return from Spain, in 1812, he was prac- 
tically unknown in Argentina. But as soon as pos- 
sible he made the acquaintance of the patriot lead- 
ers, who recognized at once that he was bringing a 
military skill and an experience to the country 
sorely needed in organizing the revolution and 
giving it direction. San Martin was not only 
educated in the best military schools of Eu- 
rope, but he had seen the strategy of the great- 
est generals of the world and had a practical 
training in war such as no other officer in Argen- 
tina, or, for that matter, in all South America, had 
received. The leaders of the revolution knew that 
he had served at one time under Wellington against 
Napoleon. Consequently, he was made lieutenant- 
colonel and was entrusted with the formation of a 
squadron of cavalry. His first important work was 
to establish a school to train officers. 

"Until now," he declared, "the United Provinces 
have fought for no one knows what, without a flag, 
and without any avowed principles to explain the 
origin and tendency of the insurrection. We must 

108 



declare ourselves independent if we wish to be 
known and respected." 

Buenos Aires had declared her independence on 
May 25, 1810. But the entire province did not take 
the final step until July 9, 1816, which may be given 
as the date of independence. 

The royalist army in Argentina had been tem- 
porarily driven back to Tucuman to await reinforce- 
ments from Peru. It was there that a council of 
the patriot chiefs was held. What impressed the 
leaders most was San Martin's unselfishness. He 
seemed to have no secret ambition for himself, to be 
wholly disinterested. One writer says of him, "He 
worked in silence, showing neither weakness, pride, 
nor bitterness at seeing his work triumphant and 
his part iri it forgotten." 

The story is told of King Arthur, the legendary 
ruler of England, that when he came into the pres- 
ence of the Knights of the Bound Table and looked 
them full in the eye, so righteous were his aims and 
purposes that his likeness shone in the countenances 
of the knights and they shared his desire to think 
pure thoughts and do noble deeds. San Martin 
had a somewhat similar effect on the soldiers and 
officers who came under the spell of his personality. 

The government, recognizing his ability, placed 
him in command of the Army of the North. So 
tactfully did he conduct himself that General Bel- 
grano, who had been in command, was not envious 

109 



of him but swore eternal friendship and even went 
to school to him to learn military science. 

It was very evident to San Martin that the power 
of Peru must be broken, that the City of the Kings 
must be captured, if the Argentine country was 
ever to be free. At the same time he saw that the 
road to Peru was not the ancient highway that 
traders had traveled for centuries, but by way of 
Chile, which must be freed first. Therefore, he 
asked to be relieved of the command of the Army 
of the North and to be placed over the obscure 
province of Mendoza, which bordered on Chile. 
Everyone wondered at this act, but San Martin 
kept silent as to his plans. 

Mendoza, a prosperous town at the foot of the 
mountains, was on the highway between Chile and 
Argentine, and southern Chile was already striving 
for independence. Here where San Martin met 
Chileans coming east and Argentinians going west, 
he set up his headquarters and was able to build a 
fire under the Spanish leaders that ultimately de- 
stroyed their power. 

Again the first thing necessary was to train offi- 
cers. San Martin established another military 
school at Mendoza. Rigid discipline was enforced, 
and the people marveled at his control over his men. 
Besides, his unselfishness and his sense of justice 
made him so popular in Mendoza that the people 
elected him governor of the province. It is said, 

110 



"They saw in San Martin a father whom they loved 
and a ruler whom they respected." 

It was at Mendoza that he organized the Army 
of the Andes, one of the most efficient forces in his- 
tory. The government of Argentina in 1815 ap- 
pointed him general-of -brigade, which position he 
accepted with the understanding that he would 
resign as soon as the country was freed from Spain. 
During this period of training he was joined by 
refugees from Chile. One of these was Bernardo 
O'Higgins, a noble patriot and skillful officer, who 
studied under San Martin and entered the Army 
of the Andes when it was ready to begin its expedi- 
tion across the mountains. O'Higgins was San 
Martin's most valuable subordinate. 

At the beginning of 1817, San Martin was ready 
to launch his expedition into Chile. On January 
17, the ladies of Mendoza, who had already given 
their jewels to be used in buying supplies, pre- 
sented him with a silken flag decorated with pre- 
cious stones. A special holiday had been declared, 
and the streets were crowded with people to see the 
troops depart. As San Martin accepted the flag, 
he waved it over his head, exclaiming in a voice that 
could be heard by the great multitude : 

"Soldiers! This is the first independent flag 
which has been blessed in South America." 

A great shout arose from the people, "Viva la 
Patria!" 

Ill 



"Soldiers! Swear to sustain it and to die in de- 
fense of it, as I swear!" San Martin went on. 

"We swear!" came the answer from four thou- 
sand throats. 

The greatest difficulty ahead of San Martin was 
to carry his army safely over the Andes Mountains. 
It must scale the snow-capped barrier and descend 
into the plains below, a very hazardous undertak- 
ing. But with the aid of O'Higgins he conducted 
the expedition so skillfully that he kept the enemy 
on the other side of the mountains guessing as to 
what route he would take, carrying safely across 
four thousand troops and all their equipment with- 
out the loss of a man. 

It is said that the passage of the Andes by San 
Martin is one of the most remarkable feats in mili- 
tary history. It probably required greater strate- 
gical skill to cross these lofty mountains under the 
circumstances than to cross the Alps under the 
conditions confronting Hannibal or Napoleon. 
Several passes were used; San Martin himself 
crossed by Patos Pass. 

San Martin's troops poured down the mountain 
side into Chile before the enemy realized that he 
had achieved what was thought to be impossible. 
Meeting the Spaniards at Chacabuco, San Martin 
administered a decisive defeat. The assembly of 
Chile was so delighted that it 'elected him governor 
with supreme power. He declined the office and, 

112 



summoning another assembly, advised it to elect his 
lieutenant, General O'Higgins. The advice was 
accepted, and Chile had for a number of years one 
of the ablest rulers on the continent. 

When Buenos Aires heard of San Martin's vic- 
tory, the people shouted for joy. The streets were 
crowded with an applauding multitude; cannon 
roared at the fort; medals were given the soldiers, 
and San Martin's daughter was voted a life pension 
which was devoted to her education. The govern- 
ment then elected San Martin to the highest mili- 
tary grade in the service. But he likewise declined 
this honor, asking instead that the government send 
him more men and supplies. Chile showed her grat- 
itude by voting him 10,000 ounces of gold, which he 
refused for himself but used to build a public 
library. 

The royalists in Chile were not yet completely 
overcome. At times it seemed that the fruits of 
San Martin's victory might be lost. However, on 
April 5, 1818, another great battle was fought at 
Maipo. This engagement destroyed the Spanish 
army and secured the independence of Chile, which 
had been declared on January 20 of the same 
year. 

After this battle San Martin went to Buenos 
Aires to consult with the government about the 
expedition to Peru. This was his final objective, 
for no province was safe so long as Peru remained 

113 











m s v 


.; r< * 



Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 
San Martin 



under Spanish rule. It seemed to others, however, 
that the power of Spain was really broken ; and the 
government of Buenos Aires asked San Martin not 
to request further funds. Immediately he sent in 
his resignation. It produced so much consternation 
that the patriot leaders told him to take any amount 
of money he needed. 

San Martin was at length ready to proceed 
against Peru. The most natural route was by sea. 
But he lacked war vessels as well as transports for 
his soldiers. In order to secure ships it was neces- 

114 



sary to resort to strategy. After the battle of Cha- 
cabuco, San Martin kept the Spanish flag flying 
over Valparaiso, the chief seaport, in order to 
deceive Spanish vessels that might stop there on 
their way from Spain to Peru. 

The strategy succeeded; several Spanish vessels 
dropped anchor in the harbor of Valparaiso, only to 
be called on to surrender by the patriots. In addi- 
tion to these captured vessels, one ship was bought 
in America and another in England. San Martin 
then sought the best commander possible for the 
expedition. The man selected was a nephew, 
Admiral Cochrane, who had given aid to General 
Miranda in his first expedition against the Spanish 
government in Venezuela. San Martin next issued 
a proclamation to the patriots of Peru announcing 
his purpose to lead an expedition against the Span- 
ish government in that province in order to free an 
oppressed people and give them an opportunity to 
form a government of their own. 

The fleet under Admiral Cochrane, consisting of 
five vessels, was sent out ahead in January, 1819. 
It reached Callao, the seaport of Lima, early in 
February, and there defeated the Spaniards. 

Just at this point San Martin was given a great 
surprise. Spain, at last free from European war, 
was equipping a large fleet to regain her lost pos- 
sessions. Buenos Aires was in a panic at the news 
and sent a hurried call to San Martin to return with 

115 



his troops to protect the city. But he refused. The 
order was repeated, and this time San Martin sent 
in his resignation rather than depart from his plans. 

The government, however, refused a second time 
to accept his resignation. San Martin, therefore, 
decided to go to Buenos Aires and consult with the 
government. While he was away, Admiral Coch- 
rane won a great victory over the Spanish fleet. 
The Englishman thereupon aspired to supreme 
command. But the Chileans could not forget the 
services of San Martin, whom they made generalis- 
simo of their forces. 

San Martin, who had worked hard for years, 
was now broken in health. But seeing the condition 
of his army and realizing that traitors in the pay of 
the Spanish government were undermining his 
plans, he started back to join his men. He was so 
feeble that he was carried on a litter much of the 
way across the mountains. He felt that no time 
could be lost, that the Spanish power in Peru must 
be broken without delay. On July 22, 1820, he was 
ready to start out. On the eve of his departure 
from Valparaiso by sea he addressed a proclama- 
tion to the people of Chile, concluding in these 
words : 

"Whatever may be my lot in the campaign 
against Peru, I shall prove that ever since I re- 
turned to my native land her independence has 
occupied my every thought, and that I have never 

116 



had other ambition than to merit the hatred of the 
ungrateful and the esteem of the virtuous.'' 

At the same time he wrote the government at 
Buenos Aires that he would turn over the command 
of the army to the central authority just as soon as 
his purpose was accomplished. He took every 
opportunity possible to assure the people that he 
was seeking no power or position for himself, that 
his only desire was to break the tyranny of Spain. 

On August 20, the expedition sailed from Val- 
paraiso, Admiral Cochrane leading the way. The 
army landed about one hundred and fifty miles 
south of Lima, and immediately San Martin issued 
a proclamation to the people, in which he declared : 

"The last viceroy of Peru endeavors to maintain 
his decrepit authority. I come to put an end to this 
epoch of sorrow and humiliation." 

Lord Cochrane continued along the coast and, 
sailing into the bay of Callao, completely destroyed 
the Spanish fleet. The army then marched north- 
ward. Everywhere the oppressed people flocked 
to San Martin's standard and hailed him as their 
savior. 

General San Martin's forces crushed the oppos- 
ing Spanish army, and on July 6, 1821, entered 
Lima. San Martin was now at the height of his 
power. Writing to Governor O'Higgins of Chile, 
he said: 

"Peru is free. I now see before me the end of 

117 



my public life and watch how I can leave this heavy 
charge in safe hands, so that I may return into some 
quiet corner and live as a man should live." 

On July 28, 1821, the independence of Peru was 
solemnly proclaimed with inspiring ceremonies in 
the great square of Lima. San Martin displayed 
the flag of Peru as the procession marched by, and 
the liberated inhabitants showered flowers on him 
in expression of their gratitude. Then the people 
urged him to become their ruler ; on August 3, 1821, 
he accepted the offer and was styled "The Protector, 
of Peru." 

Just as the Spanish conquest of South America 
began in Peru and extended southward through 
Chile and eastward across Argentina, the van of 
revolution started on the Atlantic coast and rolled 
westward into Chile and then northward into Peru. 
It came like retribution, retracing the path of blood 
that the conquerors had drawn across the continent 
and along which their heartless tyranny had left 
its toll of death and ruin. 

The government of Peru gave San Martin 
$500,000, derived from the sale of Spanish prop- 
erty, but he divided the sum among his twenty gen- 
erals, keeping none for himself. 

The great leader, the Protector of Peru, was now 
weak and almost exhausted. His body was at- 
tacked by a slow disease and he desired to return 
to private life. He saw that his generals were 

118 



jealous of his great popularity, even Admiral Coch- 
rane being ambitious to succeed him. Cochrane, 
however, disappointed in his hopes, resigned and 
returned to England. 

San Martin, although at the head of the Peru- 
vian government, found himself in a precarious 
position. The royalists in Peru were still strong 
and only awaited an opportunity to rise against 
the patriots. The people had welcomed San Mar- 
tin, but nobody knew better than himself the fickle- 
ness of popular favor. The patriot cause in Peru 
needed strengthening, and there was only one man 
who could strengthen it. That was Simon Bolivar, 
the Liberator of the North, who was on the borders 
of Peru with a large army. San Martin determined 
to call on him for aid. 



119 



CHAPTER IX 

BOLIVAR 

The first war for independence, begun in Vene- 
zuela under the leadership of Francisco Miranda, 
was suddenly brought to an end upon the downfall 
of that patriot. Even his young lieutenant, Simon 
Bolivar, who had tried to calm the crowd during 
the confusion caused by the earthquake, made peace 
with the government and sought refuge in the island 
of Curacao for fear that Spain might reconsider 
and punish him for his part in the rebellion. 

Simon Bolivar was an extraordinary man. He 
was born in the city of Caracas, Venezuela, on July 
24, 1783 — about five years after the birth of San 
Martin. He was the son of a noble family. His 
father and mother were Spanish people of great 
prominence. He was left an orphan at an early 
age, his father dying when he was only three years 
of age and his mother three years later. He was 
heir to a vast estate with hundreds of slaves. At 
the age of fourteen he was sent to Spain to be edu- 
cated, as was the custom of wealthy Spaniards in 
South America. After finishing his education, he 
married at the age of nineteen the daughter of a 

120 



Venezuela nobleman and returned to Caracas. His 
bride was just sixteen years old. Three years later 
she died, leaving no heir. Thus bereaved, Bolivar 
was living a retired life on his plantation when the 
insurrection in Venezuela broke out. 

He took no part in the movement at first, but 
finally accepted a commission to London in behalf 
of the new government. While in London he be- 
came acquainted with General Miranda and joined 
a secret society, the purpose of which was to work 
for the liberation of Spanish America. Soon after- 
ward he returned with Miranda to Venezuela. He 
then entered with much enthusiasm into the war 
for independence, serving under Miranda until the 
latter was captured and sent a prisoner to Spain. 

On the island of Curacao, Bolivar laid his plans 
to lead an expedition against the royalists of his 
native country. The other provinces of northern 
South America had followed the lead of Venezuela 
and Argentina and were attempting to overthrow 
Spanish rule. Thus, it was not difficult to secure 
adherents to his standard. The people of Vene- 
zuela were cowed by the sufferings resulting from 
their political calamities. A reign of terror had 
broken out; many persons fled to the mountains, 
and even the unexplored parts of the country, where 
misery caused them to cry aloud for vengeance. 

Bolivar quietly slipped back into Venezuela and, 
organizing these fugitives, began yescent upon 

121 



I 



Caracas. His march through the country was a 
triumph. Everywhere the people flocked to him. 
Victory after victory crushed the royalist forces, 
and, on August 4, 1813, Bolivar entered Caracas 
in state. When he reached the outskirts of the city, 
he was placed in a triumphal car drawn by twelve 
young ladies dressed in white and ribboned with 
the national colors — all of them selected from the 
first families of Caracas. He was hailed by the 
people as "The Liberator," the title he ever after- 
ward preferred to wear. 

The patriot government was so grateful to him 
for his brilliant victories that it proclaimed him 
"Dictator of the West," and gave him almost abso- 
lute power. People everywhere crowned him with 
honors. When he appeared in the streets, the 
women strewed his path with flowers. Prison doors 
were thrown open, and pale and emaciated con- 
victs came forth to breathe pure air for the fi i\st 
time in years. 

The oppressed classes hated the Spaniards with 
such intensity that some of the rebel leaders planned 
"to massacre the accursed race of European Span- 
iards." As a result, an order was issued for the 
slaying of all royalists, and the atrocities that fol- 
Wr^d were heartrending. This is an illustration 
of the extremes to/jdhick a people will go when 
justice hasten violated for generations. 

The royal) ' - in the meantime, were very active. 
122 



They organized the cowboys of the plains, called 
llaneros — wonderful horsemen and fierce fighters. 
When these rough-riders were thoroughly equipped, 
Bolivar's army could not resist them. He went out 
to meet them, but was beaten in battle after battle. 
He had to leave Caracas and flee for his own life, 
followed by a great horde of refugees who feared 
the consequences of rebellion. 

Many royalists had been killed as a result of the 
order of the patriot government. Now that the 
royalists were on top they retaliated in another 
horrible massacre. All Venezuela was again in the 
hands of the Spaniards except the little island of 
Margarita. In the meantime Bolivar had fled to 
New Granada, as Colombia was then called, to seek 
help for Venezuela or to join the patriots of that 
province in their campaign. New Granada was 
at that time a confederacy composed of several 
provinces. 

Bolivar, now without a force of his own, was one 
of a number of soldiers who fled from Venezuela 
and entered ilic service of the patriots in New 
Granada. His fame had already preceded him, 
and his appearance was hailed with enthusiasm. 
He was placed at the head of a force to reduce 
Bogota, which had rebelled^|jjainst the patriot gov- 
ernment. In December, 1814, Bogota, the capital 
of the confederated provinces, was taken by him. 

Bolivar had rendered such signal service that he 

123 



was named "Captain-General of the Confederacy." 
It was his dream to see all South America united 
in a single federal government corresponding to the 
United States of America. Therefore, the title, 
Captain-General of the Confederacy, pleased him 
greatly. 

Few men have enjoyed such great triumphs and 
suffered such fatal reverses in quick succession as 
Simon Bolivar. While riding a wave of popular 
favor, he prepared an expedition against the Span- 
ish stronghold of Cartegena. In the attempt, in 
May, 1815, he was wholly unsuccessful. Where- 
upon he resigned his command and withdrew to the 
island of Jamaica. 

Simon Bolivar's enthusiasm for independence 
took strong hold on all who came in contact with 
him. This was the principal source of his power. 
As a general, he never planned his battles with care 
and skill, but acted on impulse. This accounts for 
his quick successes and his equally sudden failures. 
Bolivar knew better, perhaps, than any one else the 
temper of the South Americans. No honor $*&s too 
great for a leader who guided them to success and 
no blame too severe for $ ne w ho failed. This fact 
doubtless accounts for Bolivar's many hasty resig- 
nations and frequent flights. He was a typical 
South American, though he added genius to his 
native emotionalism. 

While in Jamaica, bolivar published his ideas 

124 



as to the future -organization of South America. 
He now advocated the independence of each colony. 
It was his belief, though, that New Granada should 
be united with Venezuela and the union called 
Colombia. 

Bolivar was the most powerful man in northern 
South America. So influential was he that the 
royalists were exceedingly anxious to capture or 
kill him. On one occasion a slave was employed 
to murder him. Fortunately for the Liberator, 
he did not spend the night at his usual place and 
the assassin killed another in his stead. 

It was Bolivar's great desire to return to Vene- 
zuela and arouse the people again. Consequently, 
he left Jamaica and, going to Santo Domingo, se- 
cured arms and ammunition; on July 5, 1816, he 
landed once more in his native country. But his 
countrymen no longed believed in him. They did not 
think him a wise leader, remembering only his fail- 
ures. Indeed, the people actually jeered at him, and 
he returned to Santo Domingo with a crushed spirit. 

Unquestionably, Bolivar is not to be compared 
with San Martin as a military chieftain. But he 
was a great patriot. No adversity was so great as 
to crush him permanently. Few men could rise 
above misfortune more quickly than he, and he was 
almost without an equal in his ability to organize 
discordant elements. 

Even after his own people rejected him, he made 

125 




Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 
Bolivar 

a second attempt to arouse the country but failed. 
He led still another expedition, but was routed so 
completely that he fled into the woods and wan- 
dered about almost without companions. The hand- 
ful with him accused him of leading them astray 
and being the cause of their misfortunes. 

Notwithstanding the gloomy outlook, Bolivar 
returned to New Granada and issued a new proc- 
lamation declaring that "The day of America has 
come. No human power can stay the course of 
nature guided by Providence. Before the sun has 

126 



again run his annual course, altars to liberty will 
arise throughout your land." 

Bolivar's proclamation and his determination to 
break the power of Spain in the north attracted the 
attention of the patriots throughout South Amer- 
ica ; San Martin wrote him, urging him to keep up 
his spirit. Governor O'Higgins of Chile pro- 
claimed him the champion of liberty in the North. 

These cheering messages came when Bolivar was 
deeply disheartened. In fact most men would have 
given up the fight, but he had a will of steel. His 
own countrymen were again turning to him as their 
real leader. By degrees a part of Venezuela was 
wrested from royalist control, and in February, 
1819, Bolivar was a second time elected to command 
the patriot army. 

He was profiting by the experience of San Mar- 
tin, who was the best tactician and drill-master on 
the continent. In these respects Bolivar had been 
weak. Henceforth, he took more pains to discipline 
his soldiers and prepare for war, and New Granada 
began to appreciate his power over men. Bolivar 
now planned to unite his forces with those of the 
neighboring republic and crush the Spanish army. 

The forces from New Granada and Venezuela 
were brought together at Boyaca, where, on August 
7, 1819, a great battle was fought. This time Gen- 
eral Bolivar had prepared for the struggle. He 
spared no pains. On the day of the battle the 

127 



patriots were equipped and ready, and the royalists 
were completely crushed. The victory was as 
famous in the North as the victory of Maipo in the 
South. 

When Bolivar entered Bogota the municipality 
gave him a triumphal reception. A cross of honor 
and a crown of laurel were presented to him. A 
picture of liberty supported by the great Liberator 
was set up in the council chamber, and it was de- 
clared that the anniversary of his famous victory 
should be celebrated forever. 

Bolivar now carried out the first of his plans in 
uniting New Granada and a part of Venezuela. 
On December 17, 1819, the new nation formally 
adopted the title of "The Confederacy of Colom- 
bia," in honor of Christopher Columbus. A few 
years later Panama declared its independence of 
Spain and announced its decision to join Colombia. 

The Spanish power was at last broken in the 
North. Only a part of Venezuela remained in the 
hands of the Spaniards. Turning upon the royal- 
ists in Venezuela, Bolivar met them in a decisive 
battle at Carabobo and completely crushed them. 
He was now able to enter Caracas; the people 
ha.iled him anew as their savior. Venezuela agreed 
to the proposed union of Colombia and Venezuela, 
and Bolivar, on August 30, 1821, was elected presi- 
dent of the "Greater Colombia." 

At this time there were two outstanding figures 

128 



in South America, San Martin and Bolivar. The 
former had just been made Protector of Peru, and 
he was occupying the palace of the Spaniards in the 
ancient City of the Kings. Pie was the most power- 
ful man in the South. 

Simon Bolivar was the president of Colombia. 
No man in the North was so powerful. Between 
Colombia and Peru lay the province of Quito, the 
present republic of Ecuador. At first it had been 
a part of the viceroy alty of Peru, but in 1718 the 
king of Spain attached it to the viceroyalty of New 
Granada, now Colombia. 

Bolivar was anxious to march his forces into 
Ecuador and attach it to the republic of Colombia, 
of which he was president. Already parts of Ecua- 
dor had declared their independence, but a formid- 
able Spanish army still held most of this territory. 
Such was the situation in 1822 when the two great 
leaders, one from the North, the other from the 
South, were free to render Quito aid in overthrow- 
ing Spanish rule in the province that lay between 
them. 

Bolivar was exceedingly anxious to move into 
Ecuador. He notified San Martin of his purpose 
and asked him to lend some help. The latter com- 
plied with his request. As a result, Quito surren- 
dered to Bolivar in June, 1822. 

When the patriots of Ecuador learned, however,, 
that Bolivar intended to annex their province to 

129 



Colombia, they were distressed and appealed to San 
Martin to aid them in maintaining their separate 
independence. San Martin wrote Bolivar to let 
the people decide for themselves. At the same time 
he notified the leaders in Guayaquil that he would 
come to their assistance if necessary. The two great 
generals had never met. Would Ecuador be the 
cause of future trouble between them? 

The Liberator of the North and the Protector 
of the South had already disagreed as to the policy 
to be pursued with reference to this newly-liber- 
ated province. It was finally agreed that they 
should meet at Guayaquil and together, face to 
face, decide not only the fate of Guayaquil but 
perhaps that of all South America as well. 

San Martin knew that it would be a fatal mis- 
take for Bolivar and himself to become enemies. 
He greatly needed Bolivar's assistance in Peru. 
His only thought was for peace and harmony and 
the independence of South America. Bolivar knew 
that San Martin was the most skillful general in 
South America. He recognized that his own power 
over men was such that an interview might settle 
all difficulties and enable him to carry out his plans. 

In the meantime the people awaited with keenest 
interest the outcome of the interview. 



130 



CHAPTER X 

SAX MARTIN MEETS BOLIVAR 

The meeting of Jose de San Martin and Simon 
Bolivar was arranged to take place in the town of 
Guayaquil, situated on the Gulf of Guayaquil. 
Here, lying under a tropical sun but within sight 
of snow-capped mountains, the two master minds 
of the continent held the most portentous confer- 
ence in South American history. 

It was fitting that such a meeting should take 
place on historic soil. It was on the shores of the 
Gulf of Guayaquil that Francisco Pizarro first 
landed and planned his conquest of Peru. It was 
near here that the mother of Atahualpa, the Cleo- 
patra of South America, won the love of the Inca 
of the Peruvians. Over this territory Gonzales 
Pizarro ruled as governor under his famous brother. 

This is the land of volcanoes and earthquakes. 
Twenty volcanoes surround the valley in which 
Quito is located. Would the conference in this 
historic spot, in this land of violent eruptions, result 
in a political earthquake that would cause a great 
national upheaval ? No one knew, for the two fore- 
most men in South America had never met. Tem- 

131 



peramentally they were wholly unlike. Would they 
be able to agree or would there be war between 
them ? 

The little town of Guayaquil made ready to re- 
ceive the two distinguished visitors. The calm 
Pacific lay peacefully at their feet, though Coto- 
paxi and Chimborazo, mighty craters, rumbled 
ominously to the east. 

Finally the time approached, July 26. 1822, 
when the two generals were to meet. Bolivar, who 
had his headquarters at Quito, was the first to enter 
the town. He entered on July 25, the day before 
the conference. Triumphal arches had been con- 
structed in his honor, with his name inscribed on 
them. When he came in sight of the harbor, the* 
gun-boats hauled down the flag of Guayaquil and 
hoisted that of Colombia. 

"What, so soon!" the Liberator exclaimed, 
thinking they were turning the province over to 
him and to Colombia. 

But this was only a compliment to him. As soon 
as the salutes were fired, the flag of Colombia was 
lowered and the flag of Guayaquil was again raised. 
As the latter flag went up, a great shout arose from 
the multitude: "Long live the independence of 
Guayaquil!" 

Bolivar was chagrined, for he was determined to 
annex the province to Colombia. He could not 
control his feelings even in the presence of the 

133 



officials of Guayaquil, who were much excited. 
After the entry of the great general, they quietly 
disappeared, fearing that they would be compelled 
to sign away the independence of their province. 

The reception of Bolivar was suddenly inter- 
rupted, for in the harbor a vessel was just dropping 
anchor.' Immediately the news spread through 
the community that San Martin had arrived. Boli- 
var, on receiving the information, sent at once two 
aides to offer him hospitality and welcome him 
"on Colombian soil." 

The entry of this modest, unassuming soldier 
was quite in contrast to that of the Liberator from 
the north. San Martin hated pomp and ceremony. 
But Bolivar, notwithstanding his great qualities, 
could not exist without public demonstrations. His 
spirit needed them. 

San Martin remained aboard his vessel until the 
next day, July 26. At the time appointed for 
Bolivar to receive him, long files of soldiers lined 
the way and great crowds of people filled the streets 
and shouted for joy. 

Bolivar, dressed in full uniform and surrounded 
by his staff, had made great preparations for the 
interview. The meeting was just inside the en- 
trance of the building. The two generals embraced 
each other and, turning, entered the salon together, 
arm in arm. The officers of Bolivar's staff were 
presented to San Martin. Then the authorities of 

134 



the city came to make him welcome. A group of 
ladies presented a formal address, after which a 
beautiful girl placed on his head a laurel wreath of 
pure gold. The hero of the South was always 
embarrassed at such ovations and, it is said, now 
blushed like a child. Taking off the wreath, he 
replied, very modestly, that he would keep it be- 
cause of the patriotic sentiments that had inspired 
the gift. 

Then the citizens departed, and the patriot 
leaders were left alone together. A historian of 
South America describes the interview in the fol- 
lowing words : 

"The two representatives of the revolution being 
left alone, walked up and down the salon together, 
but what they said to each other could not be heard 
by those in the ante-room. Bolivar appeared to be 
agitated. San Martin was calm and self-possessed. 
They shut the door and talked together for more 
than an hour and a half. San Martin then retired, 
impenetrable and grave as a sphinx. Bolivar accom- 
panied him to the foot of the staircase, and they 
took a friendly leave of each other." 

The next day, July 27, San Martin sent his bag- 
gage on board his vessel, but that afternoon he 
attended a banquet given in his honor. At five 
o'clock the two generals sat down together at the 
banquet table. Bolivar, standing, proposed the 
following toast: 

135 



"To the two greatest men of South America — 
General San Martin and myself!" 

San Martin immediately proposed the following 
toast in reply : 

"To the speedy conclusion of the war! to the 
reorganization of the different republics of the 
continent, and to the health of the Liberator of 
Colombia!" 

After the banquet Bolivar and San Martin 
passed out into the ball-room. The Liberator of 
the North gave himself up with juvenile delight to 
the pleasures of the waltz. But San Martin looked 
on coldly, evidently thinking of the future of South 
America. At one o'clock in the morning, calling 
his aide, he exclaimed, "Let us go. I cannot stand 
this riot." 

Taking leave of Bolivar, who was enjoying him- 
self to the fullest, San Martin hastened back to his 
vessel, and an hour later he sailed out of Guayaquil 
harbor, never to see that country or Bolivar again 

No one really knows all that went on at that 
memorable interview. San Martin believed that 
South America would prosper better under inde- 
pendent monarchies or republics. Bolivar dreamed 
of one great empire under one man, and that man 
himself. San Martin wished above everything' else 
to bring the war to an end. He offered to serve 
under Bolivar. The latter declined. Then San 
Martin saw that Bolivar would not make common 

136 



cause with him — that one or the other must give 
way. He had for months been waiting for a time 
when he might surrender the command to one who 
would lead the patriot forces to final victory. He 
now felt that the hour had come, and that Bolivar, 
notwithstanding his great vanity, was the man. 

On arriving at Lima, San Martin wrote Bolivar 
that he was leaving for Chile, in order that the lat- 
ter might enter Peru in triumph. He sent him a 
fowling-piece, a brace of pistols, and a war horse 
to carry him on his campaign, and added, "Receive, 
general, this remembrance from the first of your 
admirers, with the expression of my sincere desire 
that you may have the glory of finishing the war 
for the independence of South America." 

It is evident from the letters that San Martin 
wrote and from his talk that he believed Simon 
Bolivar able to bring the conflict to a close, and 
that time alone would decide which was in the right 
as to the form of political organization that South 
America would take. 

Later, on September 20, 1822, San Martin re- 
signed as dictator of Peru. He gave his reason to 
O'Higgins. "I am tired of hearing them call me 
tyrant, that I wish to make myself king or emperor. 
On the other hand, my health is broken. The climate 
is killing me. My youth was sacrificed to the serv- 
ice of Spain, my manhood to my country. I think 
I have the right to dispose of my age." 

137 



It was comparatively easy to fight for and win 
independence, but exceedingly hard for people who 
had never governed themselves to perfect a stable 
government. Here was the great difficulty. The 
South Americans were too emotional. Their 
prejudices and passions drove them frequently into 
civil war, and it was this that San Martin especially 
wished to avoid. 

The people of Peru, however, heaped great hon- 
ors on him and urged him to remain. Congress 
voted him generalissimo of the land and naval 
forces with a pension of 12,000 dollars a year= He 
accepted the pension but declined the office. 

"I have kept the promise," he said, "that I made 
to Peru. But if, some day, her liberty is in. danger, 
I shall glory in joining as a citizen in her defense." 

He quietly announced his determination to leave 
the country. Many years later a letter of his was 
published which shows how he regarded the situa- 
tion at that time. "There is not room in Peru 
for both Bolivar and myself. He will shrink from 
nothing to come to Peru. It may not be in my 
power to avoid a conflict if I am here. Let him 
come so that America may triumph. It shall not 
be San Martin who will give a day of delight to the 
enemy." 

Few leaders have risen higher in patriotism than 
San Martin. He stands out in the world a worthy 
companion in the realms of the immortals with 

138 



George Washington. The people of Peru, Chile, 
and Argentina reproached him for retiring from 
the army. But he uttered no word of complaint or • 
defense. His letter to Governor O'Higgins giving 
his reasons was not published until many years 
afterward. 

Simon Bolivar carried out his purpose and an- 
nexed Ecuador to Colombia; it remained a part of 
the confederation until 1831, when it withdrew and 
proclaimed itself the republic of Ecuador. Bolivar, 
as soon as possible, made preparations to march into 
Peru and take possession of Lima. The royalists 
had been very active. But on his approach they 
gave way, and he entered the City of the Kings in 
triumph. 

In the meantime Spain was planning to regain 
her colonies in South America. The European 
wars were over, and the emperors of Russia and 
Austria and the king of Prussia entered into the 
famous Holy Alliance. They prepared to assist 
Spain in reconquering her provinces. This gave 
great encouragement to the royalists in South 
America. So active was the Holy Alliance that 
President Monroe of the United States took a hand 
and, on December 2, 1823, promulgated the famous 
Monroe Doctrine, which ended the interference of 
European powers in the two American continents : 
Spain could not be assisted without drawing the 
United States into the war. This doctrine made it 

139 



possible for the colonies to fight their battles with 
Spain and insured the independence of the South 
American countries. The Monroe Doctrine has 
rendered it very undesirable for European nations 
to make war on South American republics. 

There were many factions, however, in Peru. 
Ambitious leaders thought more of their own per- 
sonal fortunes and political positions than they did 
of independence. Therefore, Simon Bolivar was 
compelled to withdraw from Lima. This gave the 
royalists their opportunity, and while the jealous 
patriotic leaders were quarreling they captured 
Lima. The government was again in great confu- 
sion. San Martin was gone, and Simon Bolivar 
had been forced to leave. The success of the royal- 
ists, however, was only temporary. Bolivar sud- 
denly reappeared and defeated them at Junin. 
Finally, at the battle of Ayacucho his army, under 
the command of his lieutenant, Sucre, crushed the 
Spaniards completely. This great success thrilled 
the people, who for the moment forgot their quar- 
reling and elected Bolivar dictator of Peru. It 
seemed that his plan of a federated South America 
would succeed by his becoming dictator of each 
province in turn. 

In the meantime Bolivar had driven the Span- 
iards from the territory just across the Andes which 
had been a part of the viceroyalty of the de la Plata 
River. This new territory was organized into a 

140 



separate government in 1825 and was named 
Bolivia in honor of the Liberator. The govern- 
ment of this new republic elected Bolivar perpetual 
protector. 

The Spanish power was at last broken. But 
Bolivar's hardest task now faced him, namely, to 
administer wisely and satisfactorily the affairs of 
the liberated province. Neither his organization of 
the government nor his administration gave satis- 
faction. 

While he was in Bolivia, the republic of Peru fell 
into confusion ; and while he was in Peru, Colombia 
called him back home to save it from civil war. No 
sooner had he reached Bogota than he learned that 
civil war had broken out in Venezuela. These out- 
breaks were evidences that the several republics 
could not be united under one government. Besides, 
Bolivar was accused of seeking to have himself 
made perpetual dictator of a confederation of all 
the republics, and this caused jealousy and unrest. 

Bolivar called a council of the republics to meet 
at Panama in June, 1820. At this international 
congress, he intimated that the time had come for 
all American republics, both in North and South 
America, to form a league for the protection of the 
peace and liberties of the western world. 

The international congress was a failure. It 
encouraged Bolivar's enemies to push the charge 
that he was seeking greater power fqr himself. 

141 



Nevertheless, he continued to labor in the interest 
of freedom, until his death on December 17, 1830. 
At that time he was temporarily in exile, waiting 
for the passions of the people to subside. 

Bolivar had spent his fortune in the interest of 
liberty. For a considerable period he had unlimited 
control over the revenues of three countries — Co- 
lombia, Peru, and Bolivia. But he died without a 
cent of public money in his possession. He won the 
independence of these states and called forth a new 
spirit on the continent of South America. He puri- 
fied the administration of justice, encouraged the 
arts and sciences, fostered national interests, and 
induced foreign countries to recognize the inde- 
pendence of the republics of South America. 

In 1842 his remains were carried to Caracas, 
where a monument was erected to his memory. A 
statue of him was put up in Bogota and one in 
Lima, and in 1884 the United States honored him 
by accepting a statue of him, which was erected in 
Central Park, New York. 

San Martin lived many years in Europe in re- 
tirement, accompanied by his daughter. Being in 
feeble health, he spent his time in reading and 
watching with interest the trend of affairs in South 
America. He, too, was penniless in his last days 
and was supported largely by devoted friends. On 
August 17, 1850, he died. Chile and Argentina 
erected statues to him. Peru decreed a monument 

142 



to his memory, and Argentina brought his sacred 
ashes back to his native country, where his tomb 
may be seen today, in the metropolitan cathedral 
of Buenos Aires. 

Bolivar's attempts to form a federation of all 
South American countries failed. San Martin was 
the true prophet, for he saw that the different re- 
publics could not be united under one government. 
Bolivar's dream, however, of a union of the two 
Americas has become partly true within recent 
years. The Pan-American Union, with headquar- 
ters in Washington, D. C, and the Pan-American 
congress uniting both North and South America, 
in which representatives of the republics of the west- 
ern hemisphere meet and discuss matters of common 
interest to both continents and to all republics 
of the western hemisphere, are now a reality. And 
as the republic of the United States of America 
and the republics of South America become better 
acquainted, the bond of friendship is steadily 
strengthening. 



143 



CHAPTER XI 

O'HIGGINS OF CHILE 

The third disciple of Francisco Miranda to exert 
a determining influence on the history of South 
America was Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile, who 
has already been referred to as the lieutenant of 
General San Martin in his famous expedition across 
the Andes. Ambrose O'Higgins, the father of 
Bernardo, was an Irishman by birth, but when a 
small boy he was sent to Spain to be educated for 
the priesthood under his uncle. However, his tal- 
ents lay in another direction, and he chose the life 
of a trader. Through the influence of the uncle, 
he secured from the king of Spain the privilege of 
trading in the Spanish colonies of South America. 

Within a few years, the elder O'Higgins became 
very wealthy and settled at Santiago, Chile. The 
country at that time had few roads. O'Higgins, 
seeing the need of a highway between Chile and 
Argentina, offered his services to construct such a 
highway for the government. His plan was ac- 
cepted, and the road across the mountains to Men- 
doza was opened ; it was along this route a genera- 
tion later that his son, under San Martin, led the 

144 



patriot army into Chile. So influential did Am- 
brose O'Higgins become that in 1792 he was ap- 
pointed captain-general of Chile and four years 
later rose to the highest office in South America, 
that of viceroy of Peru. Here in the City of the 
Kings, where years before he had peddled his wares 
unknown, he returned as vice-king and was invested 
with the supreme rank in the New World. 

Bernardo O'Higgins, his son, was born on Au- 
gust 20, 1778. His mother was a native of Chile 
and a descendant of one of the most aristocratic 
Spanish families. Great attention was paid to the 
education of this youth. After receiving his early 
training under the best masters in Chile and Peru, 
he was sent, at the age of fifteen, to Spain to com- 
plete his education. While pursuing his studies, he 
had an opportunity to watch the growth of the 
French Revolution, which was affecting every na- 
tion in Europe. 

Francisco Miranda was then in England, en- 
gaged in organizing his secret societies and plan- 
ning for the overthrow of Spanish rule in South 
America. In 1799, O'Higgins, just twenty-one 
years of age, visited England to see Miranda; and 
when he fell under the wonderful spell of that great 
spirit, he, like Bolivar and San Martin, became a 
disciple. On O'Higgins's return to Spain, fate 
brought him and San Martin together. The latter 
remained to help defend the mother country against 

145 



the armies of Napoleon, while O'Higgins sailed for 
home, reaching Chile in 1802, just after his father's 
death. 

He was devoted to his mother and his sister Rosa, 
and his sister's love for him, how she served him and 
administered to him throughout his remarkable 
career is a part of the history of Chile. In 1803, 
O'Higgins settled with his mother and sister on an 
estate about sixty miles south of Chilian. This was 
a large ranch, containing, it is said, about 7,000 
cattle, 600 horses, 180 mules, and 900 sheep. 
O'Higgins gave close attention to business and 
became very successful as a stock farmer. There 
were also extensive vineyards, which grew to be 
exceedingly profitable. 

The population of Chile at that time, as now, 
was more purely Spanish than that of any other 
country in South America. The blood of the in- 
habitants was little mixed with that of negroes and 
Indians. It was a purer stock. The best families 
lived on large plantations, as a rule, and the fine 
estates of Chile made that province a very desirable 
home. A glance at the map shows that a large part 
of Chile is in the south temperate zone and conse- 
quently has a good climate. 

In 1810, when Venezuela and Buenos Aires re- 
volted, the desire for freedom in Chile was so strong 
that within a few weeks the Spanish captain-general 
was forced to abdicate; on July 16, 1810, a provi- 

146 



sional government was created with Jose Miguel 
Carrera as dictator. The feeling between patriots 
and royalists was so bitter that civil war imme- 
diately ensued. Bernardo O'Higgins, having be- 
come an ardent patriot since his return from Spain, 
at once offered his services to Carrera. Soon 
achieving distinction by his skill in handling his 
forces in a successful campaign, he was hailed as 
"The first soldier of Chile." Later he was ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief of the army. Carrera 
at length became very jealous of him. The sudden 
rise of O'Higgins into public favor wounded his 
vanity; and thereafter he hated the latter and 
sought in every way to destroy him. He grew so 
bitter that at length he came to think more of put- 
ting O'Higgins out of the way than of defeating 
the royalists. He was plotting to ruin O'Higgins 
when he happened to be captured by the royalists, 
who held him a prisoner for quite a while. This left 
O'Higgins unhampered to conduct the campaign 
against the royalists, whom he defeated in 1814; 
the independence of Chile was thus temporarily 
gained. 

Soon afterward Carrera escaped and at once 
began to excite strife. The royalists plucked up 
courage and renewed the fight. No act in O'Hig- 
gins's life brings out more clearly the unselfishness 
and fine patriotism of the man than his conduct 
at this time. It was a crisis. Carrera would have 

147 





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O'HiGGINS 

gone to any extreme against O'Higgins. The lat- 
ter, seeing the imperative need of cooperation, con- 
sented to resign as commander-in-chief and serve 
under Carrera in order to avert civil war and present 
a united front to the enemy. He saw that this was 
the only way in which to save the country, though 
he fully realized the extent of Carrera's malice. 
He did not consider his own personal safety or 
reputation when the freedom of the country was 
at stake. 

The royalists were carrying everything before 
them. Carrera, with O'Higgins as his second in 

148 



command, was forced to give battle at the town of 
Rancagua. O'Higgins commanded the division 
first sent into battle. Carrera held the rest of the 
army back and saw with fiendish delight the royal- 
ists cut O'Higgins's force to pieces. O'Higgins 
made his last stand in the open plaza. His regi- 
ment of 2,500 men fought on until only about four 
hundred remained alive. All this time Carrera 
stood motionless with an army large enough to 
have overthrown the royalists, but not until he 
thought that O'Higgins was crushed did he move. 

The enemy were so awe -stricken by the courage 
of O'Higgins and his devoted followers that when 
the little band of patriots was surrounded and about 
to be overwhelmed they hesitated to close in. 
O'Higgins and the four hundred survivors, taking 
advantage of the pause, suddenly charged out of 
the burning town,, under the cover of the smoke and 
dust, and escaped. The heroic force had fought for 
over thirty hours without cessation. 

Rancagua stands for all that is sublime in the 
eyes of Chileans, and if O'Higgins had fought no 
other battle he would be held in affectionate admi- 
ration by them. This is the "Pickett's Charge" 
of Chilean history. 

After O'Higgins's regiment had been crushed, 
it was an easy matter for the royalists to fall on 
Carrera's army and rout it ; Carrera himself barely 
escaped. The royalists were now supreme, and 

149 



for about two and a half years Chile was helpless. 
The refugees fled after the battle of Rancagua 
across the mountains to Mendoza, along the road 
built by O'Higgins's father. At that time San 
Martin at Mendoza was fitting out the army which 
was to strike the final blow for Chilean inde- 
pendence. 

Carrera reached Mendoza a short time before 
O'Higgins and sought to ingratiate himself with 
San Martin. A little later O'Higgins arrived, to 
the great surprise of Carrera, who thought that 
he had been slain in the battle of Rancagua. San 
Martin, learning of Carrera's treachery, banished 
him from the province and made O'Higgins his 
own lieutenant. 

San Martin and O'Higgins became devoted 
friends and for nearly two years they worked to- 
gether to equip the army that was to make the 
daring march across the Andes. The story of this 
wonderful expedition has already been told. When 
f he army poured down the mountainside into Chile, 
San Martin permitted O'Higgins to lead the force 
f hat broke the power of the royalists at Chacabuco. 
Thus he avenged the defeat of Rancagua. It has 
also been told in another chapter how the govern- 
ment of Chile offered the dictatorship to San Mar- 
fin, who refused the honor but persuaded those in 
control to select O'Higgins in his stead. 

Soon after O'Higgins had been put at the head 

150 



of the government, Carrera returned from exile. 
It seemed that this human fiend was destined to 
pursue the former at every turn; for whenever 
Carrera appeared, it was for the purpose of injur- 
ing O'Higgins. Carrera had hardly entered his 
native country before he began to stir up strife. 
However, he was soon captured and imprisoned. 
Escaping, he sought to organize a royalist rising 
against the patriot government. Once more he was 
captured and this time he was put to death. But the 
royalists had been given another opportunity to 
rally, and the situation was perilous. San Martin 
was in Buenos Aires. O'Higgins needed funds. 
He appealed to the people and they responded 
nobly. Jewelry, coins, and concealed treasures 
were given up, and the country was again saved. 
O'Higgins was so touched by the patriotism of the 
Chileans that he afterward caused a record of this 
sacrifice of patriotism to be placed on a monolith 
which had been erected by his father on the Val- 
paraiso road just outside of Santiago. It contains 
these words : 

"Strangers who enter here, say, if such a people 
can be slaves." 

Later, the battle of Maipo was fought, on April 
5, 1818. This ended forever the ascendency of 
Spain in Chile. Carrera was now dead, and no one 
else dared to interfere with the progress of the 
revolution. 

151 



O'Higgins was not only a great general but he 
was perhaps the greatest administrator in South 
America in the period immediately following the 
revolt of the Spanish colonies. His father before 
him had been a noted reformer, improving the laws, 
establishing courts, promoting agriculture, and re- 
lieving the distressed condition of the lower classes. 
The son followed in the footsteps of his father but 
was even more progressive. He sought the aid of 
the United States in perfecting the government. 
After the war he gave land to the soldiers who had 
fought for independence, thus imitating the action 
of the United States in settling veterans on public 
lands. He sought to strengthen the rural districts 
and make agriculture profitable. He encouraged 
trade between Chile and foreign countries and was 
exceedingly desirous that his country should be 
respected throughout the world. The bandits who 
thronged in the outlying districts were destroyed. 
Law and order were restored, and in a short period 
of time O'Higgins gave his native country a good 
government. 

When San Martin organized his expedition to 
break the Spanish rule in Peru, O'Higgins was his 
most helpful ally, and as the squadron of five vessels 
sailed from Valparaiso, in October, 1818, O'Hig- 
gins waved a farewell to San Martin, exclaiming: 

"The king of Spain three centuries ago with 
five small ships won this country. We shall drive 

152 



them from it with five. On them depends the future 
of South America." 

O'Higgins was not a professional soldier, al- 
though he was a leader of men. They trusted him. 
He led them successfully, and when the power of 
Spain over Peru was broken O'Higgins was in 
the zenith of his influence; it is said that he was 
transforming the character of the people of Chile 
by sheer force of personality. Still he recognized 
what Bolivar and San Martin likewise so clearly 
saw, that the people were not ready for self-gov- 
ernment. The descendants of the haughty Span- 
iards were not disposed to unite with Creoles and 
half-breeds in one body for the purpose of working 
out a popular government that would give equal 
advantages to all. After independence had been 
won, petty tyrants of all colors and races sprang 
up here and there and sought to overthrow the local 
government. 

O'Higgins recognized, more fully perhaps than 
any other man of his day, the need of public schools. 
At that time the most enlightened nations of the 
world were trying to found school systems that 
would give the poor opportunities for education. 
O'Higgins invited schoolmasters to Chile, intro- 
duced the Lancasterian system of primary schools, 
and sought to extend education to all classes. 

His next reform aimed at bettering health condi- 
tions by improving the sanitation of towns and vil- 

153 



lages. O'Higgins advocated free libraries, built 
good roads, increased the water supply, strength- 
ened the public revenue, and, what was most im- 
portant of all, saw that the laws of the land were 
enforced. 

On July 23, 1822, O'Higgins opened the Chilean 
congress with great ceremony. Up to this time he 
had been governing without a legislature. His pur- 
pose was to organize the machinery of state, estab- 
lish a system founded on genuine constitutional 
principles, and thereby give Chile a free and repre- 
sentative government. He was taking as his model 
the government of the United States and the exam- 
ple of Washington. 

The privileged classes, however, many of whom 
had been either royalists or royalist sympathizers, 
were very active during the period following the 
war. They considered themselves the ruling caste 
and were bitterly opposed to anything resembling 
true representative government. They sought a 
government of the classes, with special privileges 
for themselves. They hated O'Higgins and were 
anxious to see him removed from his position as 
head of the state. They were so well organized 
that when congress convened they were able to 
block all of O'Higgins's plans. Successful at every 
point, they loudly called for his resignation. 

This was not altogether a surprise to O'Higgins. 
In fact, he was seriously considering whether his 

154 



resignation would not produce a union of the fac- 
tions and insure a more satisfactory government. 
Finally he agreed to resign on condition that he he 
allowed to set up a provisional government to rule 
the nation until a national convention could meet 
and decide on a constitution. 

His abdication, on January 28 9 1823, was per- 
haps the noblest act of his whole career. He knew 
it would not be safe for him to remain in the coun- 
try. Consequently, he left his native land never to 
return alive. He made his home in Peru, where he 
lived surrounded by some of his closest friends. 
After his abdication petty tyrants arose and rep- 
resentative government was long delayed. The 
Spanish- American people required further train- 
ing before they were capable of self-government. 
O'Higgins, San Martin, and Simon Bolivar all 
learned this fact after years of bitter anguish. 

The life of Bernardo O'Higgins in exile was dif- 
ferent from that of Simon Bolivar or San Martin. 
He retired to an estate in Peru, having as his chief 
companion his sister, who had been his counselor 
and advisor throughout his whole career. Here the 
leading men of South America visited him and 
sought his advice. His own countrymen came to 
him frequently and he advised them fully. In 1839 
his native country invited him to return, but he de- 
layed, believing that if he went back then his people 
would reelect him president despite the fact that 

155 



he desired to remain a private citizen. However, 
in 1841, he had made all arrangements to return, 
when he was taken ill. He lingered for many 
weeks, dying on October 24, 1842. All Chile went 
in mourning for him. Later his remains were 
brought home and a magnificent monument was 
erected in his honor. 

Few countries can point to a nobler leader. The 
people of Chile today honor his name and speak of 
him as their greatest ruler. "First in peace, first in 
war, first soldier, and first patriot of Chile." 



156 



CHAPTER XII 

THE AGE OF TYRANTS AND HOW A COWBOY 
BECAME DICTATOR 

The progress of the South American countries 
for the first few decades after independence was 
won was such as to give the world a poor opinion 
of South American capacity for self-government. 
Often a people will fight heroically for freedom 
and exhibit all noble virtues until independence is 
won. But it requires the greatest possible patriot- 
ism and unselfishness to use that freedom wisely. 
The problem confronting the United States imme- 
diately after the War for Independence was to set 
up a representative government that would guaran- 
tee freedom and equality of opportunity to all. It 
should be remembered that the monarchical coun- 
tries of Europe had little faith in the power of the 
thirteen colonies of North America to govern them- 
selves. These were, however, finally able to unite 
and produce a national government that has out- 
lived most of the monarchies of Europe. Success 
came because of the capacity of the people for self- 
government. 

The governmental difficulties in South America 

157 



after independence had been gained were tremen- 
dous. In the United States the free population, 
as was said before, consisted for the most part of 
one race and one language. Negroes and Indians 
remained apart- from the white race. Therefore, 
the leaders in North America belonged to the same 
race, spoke the same language, and had similar 
ideas of government, so that it was not difficult for 
them to unite in a common cause. 

In South America it was very different. The 
European races had intermarried with negroes and 
Indians and their descendants had again intermar- 
ried, so that there were several different races: 
Spaniards and Portuguese, other Europeans, 
Creoles, mulattoes, negroes, Indians. Leaders 
from each of these races desired to head fac- 
tions or to rule provinces. No one wished to 
be second to others. An example of this may be 
observed in the enmity of Carrera for O'Higgins. 
The former was a Spaniard, the latter a Creole. 
When the common enemy had been defeated, the 
patriotic leaders in many instances became bitter 
enemies of each other. A defeated candidate for 
president would not accept the result of an election, 
and civil war was chronic. This, therefore, was the 
age of tyrants. The leader with the strongest fol- 
lowing would drive out his opponent and reign as 
an autocrat until he was himself deposed. As a 
result, the more progressive nations of the world 

158 



put little faith in the governments of South 
America. 

Such conditions existed in all South American 
countries except Brazil. The great patriots Simon 
Bolivar, San Martin, and O'Higgins saw the storm 
rising and abdicated. The example of the United 
States, therefore, could not be followed at first in 
South America — the example of obedience to the 
Constitution. For instance, many of the political 
leaders in the United States resented the election, 
in 1828, of Andrew Jackson as president, but they 
accepted the result of the election and continued to 
work for a greater nation. In no South American 
country at that time would the leaders peacefully 
accept the outcome of a bitterly contested election. 
Even in the United States the leaders disagreed 
over the question of states' rights and finally went 
to war. But this was the only case of civil war. In 
South America, on the other hand, one tyrant after 
another usurped authority, and for more than half 
a century civil war was the rule rather than the 
exception. It was rare that a tyrant held his power 
more than a year or two. 

Since government in South America in this 
period was insecure, foreigners visited that conti- 
nent but little. Few emigrants from European 
countries settled there, while millions came to North 
America. Trade developed slowly, and the various 
countries were so weakened financially by incessant 

159 



war that their credit in the markets of the world was 
low. This was preeminently the age of the military 
chieftain, selfish in his ambitions, merciless in war, 
and ruthless in his rule over a rebellious people. 

One of the most spectacular tyrants of this period 
was Juan Manuel Rosas of Argentina. Argentina 
is more like the United States in soil and climate 
than any other South American country and has 
made wonderful progress within the last generation. 
But in the age of the tyrants it, too, was torn by 
civil war. 

Juan Manuel Rosas was a product of the pam- 
pas, the immense prairie lands of Argentina. He 
was born in Buenos Aires in 1793 and was so 
neglected by his parents that he did not learn to 
read and write until after he was married. It seems 
that his parents thought only of making money, and 
the boy was sent away from them very early and 
reared on the pampas, being cared for by the cow- 
boys, or gauchos, on one of his father's ranches or 
estancias ( cattle runs ) , as they were called. 

One writer describing the pampas in 1820, when 
Rosas was a young man, said that the number of 
wild animals was such that all Europe did not con- 
tain so many horses, cattle, sheep, ostriches and 
game of all kinds as wandered over the plains of 
Argentina. The fertile lands, almost treeless, pro- 
duced a luxuriant native grass that grew as high 
as a man's head and was very nourishing to ani- 

160 



mals. The Spaniards who first came to that coun- 
try brought over the horses, cattle, and sheep and 
turned them loose on the pampas ; these multiplied 
so rapidly that by the nineteenth century millions 
of their descendants roamed the plains. 

The pampas also produced a type of man whose 
story is as romantic as that of the cowboys on the 
prairies of North America. In Argentina those 
cowboys, or gauchos, were the offspring of Euro- 
pean colonists and Indians. The gauchos have 
practically disappeared today, just as the cowboys 
of the United States have about passed away. If 
we believe the stories told of them, they were the 
most skillful horsemen in the world and created 
just the right kind of an environment to produce 
a daring leader such as Rosas. It is said a circus 
once went to Buenos Aires and advertised that it 
had the best riders on earth. Before the circus 
had ended its performance a group of gauchos 
rushed into the ring and completely outdid the 
circus men at every one of their tricks. 

The gauchos were not only very skillful in the 
use of the lasso, but they also used equally well the 
bolas, which consists of a leather thong from eight 
to ten feet long weighted at each end with a small 
ball of stone or iron. The gaucho, in hunting, 
swings the bolas around his head until it attains 
great velocity and, riding at full speed, hurls it at 
the legs of the game. Wrapping quickly around 

161 




Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 

A Gaucho 

the legs, it throws the animal to the ground and 
enables the gaucho to capture it. This was the 
favorite method of hunting the ostrich. 

The gauchos did almost everything on horseback 
— hunt, fish, carry water, and even attend church; 
they refused to march or fight if they could not ride. 
Children were taught from infancy to use the lasso. 
They practised on chickens and dogs and then tame 
cattle. By the time a child was five years old he 
could ride horseback. Within another year he was 
sent out to hunt, and from then on he lived in the 
saddle and was taught that it was a disgrace to 
walk. 

162 



In those very troublous times, the gauchos were 
the fiercest warriors in Argentina, and they were 
constantly at war. If they were not defying the 
government, they were fighting bands of robbers or 
Indians. The government needed their aid in keep- 
ing the Indians at a distance, and then it needed 
troops to keep the gauchos from defying the gov- 
ernment. Such were the people who received 
among them Juan Manuel Rosas, the Creole, when 
a very small boy. 

Rosas was quick to learn, and the gauchos trained 
him as they did their own young. He was so apt 
that, by the time he reached manhood, there was 
nothing the gauchos could do that he had not 
learned to do better. One writer says of him : "He 
would mount a horse which had never been ridden 
before and, with a gold piece placed under each 
knee, let the enraged pony buck under him without 
displacing the coins. " 

A favorite performance of his was to suspend 
himself by his hands from the crossbar in a corral 
filled with wild horses: at the moment when the 
wildest of them dashed beneath him, Rosas would 
drop down on its back and, without saddle or bridle, 
ride off over the plains until the beast was tamed. 
Sometimes he would have a gaucho lasso the hind 
legs of his horse while at full gallop, and as it was 
thrown forward, Rosas, pitched over its head, would 
land gracefully on his feet. 

163 



Naturally the half-civilized gauchos of the plains 
worshiped a man who could lead their life so sur- 
passingly well as to excel them in almost everything. 
While he was a mere boy he began the management 
of his father's cattle farms, and wherever he went 
the gauchos flocked to him, asking to serve under 
him. But Rosas was more than a leader of cow- 
boys. He saw very clearly, perhaps more so than 
any other man of his day, the possibilities of the 
pampas. The gauchos led an idle, careless life. 
In order to keep those on his father's estates busy, 
Rosas introduced the cultivation of corn and wheat 
on a vast scale. This was the beginning of the agri- 
cultural development of Argentina, and today seas 
of wheat, corn, and alfalfa take the place of the 
wild grass of a few years ago. It was Rosas's 
youthful genius that pointed to the immense possi- 
bilities of wheat and corn production, an industry 
that has since made Argentina famous as one of the 
world's great food-producing centers. 

Not only the gauchos but the Indians came under 
Rosas's influence. The latter were so loyal to him 
that no man dared to speak a word against the 
"White Chief," as they called him. It is said that 
an Indian walking the streets of Buenos Aires 
heard some one criticizing Rosas. Immediately the 
savage drew his knife and stabbed the speaker to 
the heart. 

Life on the pampas in those earlier days was 

164 



hazardous. There was little law save what a man 
could himself enforce. Because of these conditions, 
Rosas organized the gauchos on his estate and ex- 
acted from them the most severe discipline. So 
complete was his organization that he was ready 
and able at a moment's notice to repel attacks from 
bands of roving Indians or hostile groups of 
gauchos roaming the plains as cattle thieves. His 
iron rule taught both the gauchos and Indians the 
meaning of law and order, a lesson that all classes 
needed to learn. 

When Rosas visited his parents in Buenos Aires, 
his faithful band would follow him until ordered 
back ; and his return after a long absence was cele- 
brated by fiestas and dances lasting two or three 
days, on which occasions, it is said, from ten to 
twenty oxen were roasted in their hides. 

Rosas's life was interrupted by a strange inci- 
dent. His mother accused him of taking money 
belonging to the family. This so enraged the youth 
that he left his father's ranch and worked as a cow- 
boy or overseer on another estate. He taught the 
people how to salt beef and prepare it for exporta- 
tion. Until that time the country had derived little 
profit from the great cattle industry. By means 
of the trade in beef and hides, Rosas made money 
enough to buy a cattle ranch lying about one hun- 
dred and fifty miles south of Buenos Aires in a 
wild section of the country. 

165 



Here he formed another army . of devoted 
gauchos. He dressed them all in red uniforms, 
which pleased them very much. He also organized 
the Indians who lived near him. Indeed, he was 
the only man in the province who had any consider- 
able influence over the Indians. Consequently, 
when a fierce tribe of savages revolted and even 
threatened the capital of Buenos Aires, the gov- 
ernment, which was weak because of the many civil 
wars, sent for Rosas. He charged upon the Indians 
and scattered them over the pampas. Then he and 
his faithful gauchos quietly rode back home. 

The government in Buenos Aires was very un- 
stable. One bitter conflict after another broke out. 
The people in distress called frantically for some- 
body to relieve them of these internal feuds. Sud- 
denly Rosas at the head of a band of faithful 
gauchos rode like a cyclone one morning into the 
city and took it by storm. When the contending 
factions had been silenced, the administration called 
Rosas "The Liberator of the Capital," and he was 
made commander-in-chief of the fighting men of 
the southern part of the province of Buenos Aires. 

Much damage in the meantime had been done to 
the farms. Cattle had been stampeded. Some had 
been slaughtered and carried off. After the war 
Rosas raised a fund to repay the farmers for their 
losses. This, of course, made him very popular 
with the agricultural classes. 

166 



By 1830 he had become the leading man in Ar- 
gentina. He decided matters between contending 
parties, and revolutionists consulted him before 
making an outbreak. Between 1810, the date of its 
declaration of independence,, and 1835. at which 
time Rosas became dictator, Argentina had thirty- 
six changes of government, an average of one for 
about every nine months. Naturally life and prop- 
erty were insecure under such conditions. 

Bosas was born in the midst of revolution and 
brought up on it. He was the most skillful soldier 
in South America after San Martin. Because of 
his immense power and as a reward for defending 
the capital, he became governor of Buenos Aires 
for a term of three years. He began at once to rule 
with an iron hand and to demand the same severe 
obedience of the inhabitants that he had exacted of 
the gauchos. Those who rebelled were promptly 
shot without trial. He was so successful that in 
1835 he became dictator of Argentina. At that 
time lawlessness, bloodshed, and murder were com* 
monplace. Bosas restored order first. Then he 
whipped the rebellious people in line and organized 
the first substantial government in Argentina. He 
excited the admiration of San Martin, who, watch- 
ing the civil strife from afar, out of admiration 
presented him with his sword. 

Bosas loved his country and was exceedingly 
jealous of foreign interference. When a French 

167 



admiral threatened to bombard Buenos Aires, he 
replied: "For every ball that falls into town, I will 
hang a French resident." The English minister 
was bound for the capital in order to issue an ulti- 
matum. "When he comes put him to pounding the 
maize for my breakfast porridge," Rosas said, with 
a sneer. 

A conspiracy was hatched to murder the dicta- 
tor. On the night when the conspirators were to 
carry out their plans he invited them all to a great 
reception; the last guest had hardly reached home 
before every conspirator was arrested and executed 
on the palace grounds. These were the methods of 
a tyrant. Such a reign as this could not last. The 
people would not suffer it to continue. Rosas had 
welded the nation together, but his grip was about 
to break. He had a spy system which developed 
into a most formidable secret society. Men sus- 
pected of plotting against the dictator were ruth- 
lessly put to death. He had conflicts with Uru- 
guay, Paraguay, and Chile. By 1851 the opposi- 
tion to his tyranny had become so serious that the 
little nation of Uruguay, always hostile to Argen- 
tina, was besought by the Anti-Rosastos to head a 
war against the tyrant. A large Brazilian army 
was also employed to break his power. 

The next year, on February 3, 1852, Rosas was 
overthrown. His own tyranny had at length de- 
stroyed his usefulness. Even at the height of his 

168 



power many of his former friends could not endure 
his tyrannical reign, which had transformed him 
into a human fiend. He saw his power crumbling 
away. His army was beaten almost in sight of 
the capital. Rosas slipped aboard an English 
vessel, disguised as a sailor, and quietly left the 
country forever. 

He was the last of the tyrants in Argentina. He 
was the most bitterly hated man in his native coun- 
try and it is said that even today the people cele- 
brate the date on which he was finally driven from 
the government. 

Two years later, on May 1, 1853, a constitutional 
convention, called for the purpose of framing a 
government, met and adopted a constitution mainly 
copied from that of the United States. This con- 
stitution, with a few amendments, has continued to 
be the fundamental law of the Argentine Republic. 
However, it required a tyrant's reign to make the 
people appreciate representative government. 

Rosas fled to England at the age of fifty-six and 
there he again became a stock-raiser. For twenty- 
five years he lived the quiet life of a country gentle- 
man. A writer describing him in his old age said, 
''No one would have thought that the singularly 
handsome old gentleman who lives quietly and un- 
obtrusively on a little farm near Southampton, 
England, was the once-famous despot of Argen- 
tine." 

169 



The life of Rosas covered a period when all of 
South America was struggling through civil wars 
to more stable government. His example of 
tyranny and bloodshed was reproduced in every 
South American country. But the second half of 
the nineteenth century has a different story to tell, 
and in that period Argentina, Chile, and Brazil 
set an example in good government which the other 
nations of South America are following to their 
advantage. 



170 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES 

At the fall of Juan Manuel Rosas, Argentina 
determined to have a representative government 
founded on a constitution. It was very difficult to 
establish such a government until the people had 
become educated in the ways of self-government. 
In 1862, General Bartolome Mitre was elected 
president after a bloody civil war. His adminis- 
tration covered a period of industrial progress. 
Railroads were built, and within a comparatively 
short period, Argentina, which had been a back- 
ward nation, became prosperous. This was largely 
due to the development of its agricultural resources. 

Domingo Sarmiento, the "School-master Presi- 
dent," succeeded Mitre in 1868. His election is 
said to have been the freest and most peaceful ever 
held in the republic. President Sarmiento estab- 
lished public schools and normal schools and even 
sent to the United States for a number of teachers 
to aid him in reorganizing the educational system 
of Argentina. He was a close friend of Horace 
Mann, and as a result of the foundation laid by him, 
Buenos Aires today has excellent schools. It is said 

171 



that Argentina spends more money per capita on 
the education of its children than any other country 
in the world. 

The people were at last learning to govern them- 
selves, though they did not yet know how to live in 
peace and harmony with neighboring republics. 
Few of the first seventy-five years of the nineteenth 
century passed without war or rumors of war in 
the Argentine Republic. This was true of all South 
American nations. 

The trouble usually grew out of disputes over 
boundary lines or claims to territory. It is a singu- 
lar feature of human nature that nations incom- 
petent to rule the people already within their bor- 
ders will go to war for more territory. Such has 
been the history of mankind since the beginning of 
time. This was particularly true of South Amer- 
ica. Nevertheless, the nations which set the exam- 
ple of settling disputes without war, not only for 
South America but for the whole world, were Chile 
and Argentina. 

If you will take the map of South America and 
look at Argentina and Chile, you will see that the 
boundary line of these two nations is the Andes 
Mountains. Chile, a narrow strip of land between 
the mountains and the coast, is nearly three thou- 
sand miles long, but nowhere more than one 
hundred and thirty wide. The last stretch of seven 
hundred miles southward is for the most part a 

172 




Copyright, E. M. Newman 

The Christ of the Axdes 



[173] 



series of islands, many of them unpopulated. The 
extreme southern end of Chile is inhabited by a few 
scattered tribes of Indians so uncivilized that they 
do not even wear clothes, although it is very cold. 
They live on roots, wild berries, and shell-fish. 
These Indians are the lowest kind of savages known 
to exist. They possess no horses, have no tame ani- 
mals, and have learned little from civilized man 
except to use tobacco, of which they are passion- 
ately fond. 

On the Argentine side the Rio Negro was the 
southern boundary line of civilization so late as 
1878. In that year a tribe of fierce Indians was 
driven south of the river by General Julio Roca, 
who became president of Argentina in 1880 after 
another civil war. The people of Argentina thought 
that President Roca had done a wonderful thing 
when he expelled these Indians from the country 
north of this river and opened vast areas of rich 
land to settlement, extending the boundary west- 
ward to the mountains. 

It was in General Roca's administration, also, 
that Argentina had its first wave of material pros- 
perity. Great cattle ranches developed, and the 
republic became recognized as one of the leading 
agricultural countries of the world. Its expanses 
of fertile land were discovered to be equal to the best 
anywhere. Vast wheat fields were planted. The 
grazing prairies were converted into stretches of 

174 



corn, oats, and alfalfa. Near the foot-hills of the 
mountains grew some of the finest vineyards in 
the world. 

The land-owners took much pride in their stock 
and imported the finest breeds to be found. The 
gauchos began to disappear rapidly. Many be- 
came stockmen and superintended large estan- 
cias or plantations. Italians came over and set- 
tled in large numbers and grew wealthy in culti- 
vating vineyards. French colonies were established, 
likewise English and German. North Americans 
also settled in this country. All joined to make 
Argentina one of the great nations of the world; 
Buenos Aires, its capital, became one of the world's 
largest cities, resembling New York in its business 
bustle and Paris in its gay social life. 

General Roca was an able executive, and in his 
administration the outside world began to respect 
the Argentine business man. Railroad lines were 
built, and the country began to grow very pros- 
perous. Later the country south of the Rio Negro 
was opened, and that part of Argentina has become 
one of the main sheep -raising regions of the globe. 
Both Chile and Argentina thus grew into prosper- 
ous agricultural nations. Yet as this new territory 
southward was opened, the two countries were con- 
stantly contending over the boundary line along the 
ridge of the Andes, which had never been deter- 
mined. Through the wisdom of President Roca, 

175 



who was one of the really great rulers of the world 
at that time, war was averted, and the two countries 
continued to prosper, though there was much ill- 
feeling between them. 

General Roca retired from office in 1886. He 
was succeeded by men who were not so able as he, 
and the country was again thrown into confusion. 
Civil war once more broke out, and the prosperity 
of the nation was much lessened. Again, in 1898, 
General Roca was elected president. 

For ten years Chile and Argentina had been on 
the verge of war over the boundary line. Though 
the southern part of Argentina was being opened 
for settlement or being explored, where did the 
dividing line between the two nations run? No one 
knew. This was the question to be settled. Both 
countries were spending large sums of money in 
preparing for war. Each was purchasing battle- 
ships and raising a large standing army. 

A few weeks before Roca was elected president, 
Chile sent an ultimatum to Argentina demanding 
arbitration. Many factions in Argentina advo- 
cated war. On the other hand, the bishops made 
fervid appeals to both governments to avert war; 
and it is said that the women pleaded with their 
husbands not to join the army but to compel the 
rulers to submit the question of the boundary line 
to arbitration. People believed that if the nations 
went to war it would mean the ruin of both. 

176 



The two countries were proud. The people of 
both came of fighting stock, and it seemed that war 
would occur in spite of all efforts to avert it. The 
wisest men of Argentina, however, still looked to 
Roca to carry them safely through this crisis ; fur- 
thermore, Europe and the United States became 
greatly interested in the effort to preserve peace. 
There had already been far too much warfare in 
South America. The world asked whether it was 
indeed possible for these countries ever to rise above 
the primitive instinct to fight on any provocation. 

This question became serious when it began to 
appear that Chile would also go to war with Bo- 
livia; many thought that war between Argentina 
and Chile might involve South America in a gen- 
eral conflict. Just when it appeared that the con- 
tinent would be plunged in a great struggle, the 
British government, which had once arbitrated a 
dispute over the Chilean boundary line, again 
offered its services, and the offer was accepted. 
There were many British subjects in the two coun- 
tries, and much British capital was invested in 
South American enterprises : all might be ruined in 
case of war. The British ministers to Argentina 
and Chile submitted the claims of the two nations 
to King Edward VII., who rendered a decision a 
few months later; and, to the relief of everybody, 
this decision was accepted without controversy. 
It was largely due to the calm resourcefulness and 

177 



level-headedness of President Roca that the most 
critical period in the history of the two nations and, 
perhaps, of South America thus passed without 
war. 

The two countries did not stop here. They pro- 
posed to make it impossible for them ever to go to 
war, if such a consummation could be reached. 
Therefore, they agreed to erect on the boundary 
line of the two nations a great statue of Christ, the 
Prince of Peace, as a symbol that disputes should 
be settled in the Christian way as well as a memorial 
to their common faith. The statue was cast at the 
arsenal at Buenos Aires from cannon taken from 
an old fortress near the city. 

The site selected for the statue was the crest of 
the Andes, on the Cumbre ridge, which is hardly a 
quarter of a mile across. The spot was one hal- 
lowed both to Argentinians and Chileans by its his- 
toric associations. There, at a high altitude and in 
intense cold, one may stand and look down west- 
ward into Chile, or eastward into Argentina. There 
a part of San Martin's army camped in 1817, on 
that memorable march across the Andes when Ar- 
gentinians and Chileans stood side by side to wrest 
Chile from the tyranny of Spain. There, on the 
great highway between Argentina and Chile, in the 
Uspallata Pass, a little stone house had been built 
many years before to afford protection from the 
cold for Argentinians and Chileans crossing the 

178 



mountains. All these sentiments counseled peace. 
On the level summit of this pass was erected the 
heroic figure of Christ, a bronze statue twenty-six 
feet high, standing on a pedestal rough-hewn from 
the natural rock of the mountains, twenty-two feet 
high, which in turn rests on a huge base of stone. 

March 13, 1904, was the date set for the unveil- 
ing. Thousands of men, women, and children from 
Chile and Argentina came to witness the cere- 
monies. Many were weeks making the trip, and 
hundreds camped below on the mountain side for 
days preceding the dedication. 

On the appointed day the crowd was separated. 
Argentinians were arranged on Chilean soil and 
Chileans were grouped on Argentine soil. Between 
them was the great statue of Christ, facing north- 
ward and guarding the peace of both countries for- 
ever. His left hand supports the cross, while the 
right hand is outstretched as if in the act of blessing 
the multitude. On the granite base are two tablets, 
one presented by the working men's union of 
Buenos Aires, and the other by the working women. 
One gives a record of the making of the statue ; on 
the other is inscribed these words : 

"Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust 
than shall the Argentines and Chileans break the 
peace which they have pledged at the feet of Christ 
the Redeemer." 

The statue was dedicated to the whole world as 

179 




Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 

Scene on Trans-Andean Railroad 

a practical lesson in peace and good will. Imme- 
diately afterward Chile sold her warships for 
£1,000,000 ($5,000,000), a sum sufficient to pay 
her debts and make some needed improvements. 
The next year a dispute with Bolivia was settled in 
the Christian way. Moreover, a much-needed rail- 
road was built across the mountains from Chile to 
Argentina ; this is the Trans- Andean railway, con- 
necting Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, one of the 
world's wonders in railroad construction. The 
peace of the two nations watched over by the Christ 
of the Andes is a fine example of a Christian and 
patriotic purpose to end strife and promote good 
will. 

The two nations have prospered greatly since 
that memorable event. Argentina and Chile, fol- 

180 



lowing the path of peace, have become great agri 
cultural and commercial nations. Their boundary 
lines are now clearly marked out, and their climate 
and resources afford an opportunity for a mighty 
development. 

Argentina is one-third the size of the United 
States, or about equal to that portion of it east of 
the Mississippi River. Its population, however, is 
only a little more than that of the state of Penn- 
sylvania. This gives some idea as to the vast re- 
sources not yet developed. The country has variety 
of climate, ranging from tropical in the extreme 
north to almost arctic in the extreme south, though 
the larger part of Argentina is in the temperate 
zone. Its government is similar to that of the 
United States. The nation is divided into four- 
teen provinces or states, ten territories, and one 
federal district, corresponding to the District of 
Columbia. 

Buenos Aires, its capital, has prospered greatly 
since the beginning of the era of peace. It is now 
one of the largest cities in the world, having a popu- 
lation of about 1,700,000. Only two cities of the 
United States are larger, New York and Chicago. 
Visitors who see Buenos Aires for the first time 
marvel at its beauty. Its broad, clean streets, its 
ninety- seven parks, its underground railway 
system, its museums, theaters, libraries, art gal- 
leries, hotels, public schools, and government build- 

181 



ings are a marvel to those who have not kept up 
with its progress. 

The life of the young people is similar to that 
of the young people of the United States. The 
boy scouts may be seen taking their long hikes. The 
seacoast has delightful pavilions and bathing re- 
sorts; horseback riding is- a popular sport, and the 
free outdoor life makes for health and pleasure. 

The prosperity of the country is emphasized in 
the growth of other large cities: Rosario with a 
population of 250,000, Cordoba, with over 100,000, 
Mendoza with 60,000. These and like towns, con- 
nected by great railroad lines and supported by a 
rich agricultural country, tell of the great develop- 
ment that has taken place since the Christ of the 
Andes raised his hand over the boundary. 

Chile also has prospered since it declared for 
peace and sold its warships to pay off its debts and 
establish the confidence of the world in its financial 
integrity. This nation is divided into twenty-three 
provinces, or states, and one territory. As was 
said above, it stretches along the Pacific coast for 
more than 2,600 miles and its climate, like that of 
Argentina, varies from semi-tropical in the north 
to frigid cold in the south. 

The capital, Santiago (from Santo Iago, mean- 
ing St. James), has grown greatly in the era of 
peace. It is one of the most cosmopolitan cities in 
South America, with a population of more than 

182 



400,000. Situated in a lovely plain and surrounded 
by fine farms, it has probably a great future in store 
for it. Its handsome shade trees, beautiful parks 
and driveways, beds of gorgeous flowers, fountains 
and statues and costly public buildings give the city 
an attractive picturesqueness. 

Chile has other important cities that have pros- 
pered likewise. Valparaiso (Valley of Paradise), 
a city of nearly 200,000 inhabitants, is the most 
important seaport on the Pacific coast next to San 
Francisco. It is situated about the center of Chile. 
If you will look at your map, you will doubtless 
be surprised to learn that Valparaiso is due south 
of New York city. This is due to the extension 
of South America toward the east. 

Chile is noted in the commercial world for its 
mineral products, especially for its nitrate of soda, 
which is so valuable as a fertilizer that every agri- 
cultural nation must use it or some substitute. 

Argentina and Chile, having prospered so 
greatly from this era of peace and good will, were 
anxious to lend their services to the United States 
and Mexico a few years ago when these two nations 
seemed about to go to war. The story of their 
services in this respect will be told in a later chapter. 



183 



CHAPTER XIV 

HOW BRAZIL BECAME AN EMPIRE 

The history of the republic of Brazil is somewhat 
different from that of the other South American 
countries. Although this part of the continent was 
discovered in 1499 by Pinzon, a companion of Co- 
lumbus, the Portuguese commander, Pedro Alvarez 
Cabral, followed him by accident a year later 
(1500) and took possession of the country in the 
name of the king of Portugal. It was thus, acci- 
dentally, that Brazil became a province of Portugal 
rather than of Spain. 

The country did not appear to be rich in min- 
erals or other natural resources. Consequently, no 
European nation was at first interested in it. The 
colonization of Brazil was at length begun by sub- 
jects of the Portuguese monarchy who traded in 
brazilwood. Presently sugar cane was introduced 
and proved to be more valuable than gold mines; 
colonies developed rapidly along the coast. In this 
way Brazil came to be the first colony founded in 
America upon an agricultural principle, for until 
sugar cane was introduced precious metals were 
the main attraction in the New World. Large 

184 



plantations arose, sugar factories were erected, and 
thousands of negroes were imported to work in the 
fields. A sugar plantation or fazenda, as it was 
called, constituted quite a village, where the planter 
lived, surrounded by factory, shops, cabins, stables, 
and fields. He was an independent feudal lord, 
sometimes the governor of the province and always 
a person of considerable importance. Much profit 
was derived from the cultivation of sugar cane, and 
along the coast of Brazil there were many planta- 
tions. In fact, the king of Portugal divided the 
country into hereditary captaincies and granted 
large sections of land on the coast to persons willing 
to undertake a settlement, together with unlimited 
powers of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. 

This method of granting land was successful in 
attracting many Portuguese families to Brazil. 
The settlements increased so rapidly in the last half 
of the sixteenth century that by the time the Puri- 
tans landed in Massachusetts the inhabitants of the 
coast of Brazil numbered, it is said, over 100,000 
people, including several small towns ranging from 
5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. Among them were 
Bahia, Pernambuco, and Rio de Janeiro; Bahia was 
the capital. 

Students of United States history know that the 
early settlers at Jamestown were supported in their 
days of famine by maize or Indian corn, the prin- 
cipal bread of the Indians. The story of Hiawatha 

185 



is an Indian legend telling of the mythical origin 
of this valuable plant. In Brazil, the early Portu- 
guese settlers discovered a native food which be- 
came as valuable to the newcomers as Indian corn 
was to the early English settlers. This was manioc, 
which is the most widely used bread food in Brazil 
today. The legendary origin of this plant is as 
interesting as the story of Hiawatha. 

It is said that a great plague was sweeping over 
Brazil, threatening to destroy the entire population, 
when a beautiful white virgin named Mani came 
down from heaven to help the natives. She went 
among them, caring for the sick and distressed, and 
wherever she appeared the disease fled before her. 
But just as the plague was conquered she, herself, 
fell a victim to it and died. The people were in 
great distress. They were not only panic-stricken 
from the scourge but were also without food. The 
body of the beautiful maiden was buried in the 
house where she had made her home, in accordance 
with the custom of the Indians. The grave was 
watered daily, and very soon an unknown plant 
sprang from it. When this matured, the earth 
cracked open and revealed a round white root the 
color of Mani's body. Being very hungry, the 
people ate the root and found it not only good to 
the taste but nourishing. They believed the root 
to be the body of Mani, the woman who had died 
that they might live. Therefore, they called it 

186 



mani-oc, or the house of Mani, and it became the 
chief food of the Indians. 

The roots of the plant grow in clusters and re- 
semble turnips. One plant produces as much as 
twenty or thirty pounds of food. In preparing it, 
the roots are scraped and the juice is squeezed out. 
The substance is then laid out to dry, whereupon it 
forms a white meal or flour from which bread is 
made. The sediment from the juice, called tapioca, 
is well known in America, where it is widely used 
in making a delicious dessert. 

The manioc plant has become so valuable that it 
has been introduced into other countries. In the 
southern United States it is cultivated and factories 
are built to extract the starch from it for commer- 
cial purposes, since it has a higher percentage of 
starch than any other plant. The inhabitants of 
Brazil still use it widely as a bread food. 

The cultivation of manioc secured to the early 
settlers an ample supply of bread. The sugar in- 
dustry developed so rapidly that by the seventeenth 
century Brazil was supplying Europe with the bulk 
of its sugar. The American colony had little com- 
petition in the whole world. Consequently, the col- 
onists fixed prices that made them very wealthy. 
The gold and silver of Peru were no longer enrich- 
ing the court of Spain, but the sugar of Brazil was 
carrying pleasure to all Europe and bringing back 
to Brazil a permanent wealth. Such is the differ- 

187 



ence between wealth dug from mines and wealth 
produced by the soil. 

About the beginning of the seventeenth century 
Europe was thrilled by another discovery in Brazil. 
One day a negro slave woman picked up a beautiful 
stone. It was so brilliant that she realized it was 
valuable. Carrying the stone to her master, she 
showed it to him. When he expressed great delight 
and wished to take it, she drew back and agreed to 
give it to him only on condition that he granted her 
freedom. He at once consented. The gem proved 
to be one of the most valuable diamonds in the 
world. Later, it was sold for $15,000,000, and it is 
said to be now in the possession of a king in India. 

The diamond mines, located chiefly in the moun- 
tains of Minas Geraes, one of the largest states in 
Brazil, were for many years the most famous in 
the world. A convict one day discovered another 
diamond of great value. He sent it to the governor 
of the province, who accepted it and pardoned him. 
That gem is today one of the famous diamonds of 
the world, worth millions of dollars. 

In addition to diamonds, gold and silver and the 
commoner metals were discovered in the mountains 
of Brazil. When it was at last learned that the 
country was rich in precious gems and metals, the 
nations of Europe became as anxious to secure a 
part of this vast area as they had been to take from 
Spain its colonies. In consequence, Portugal was 

188 



jT;Sv l^ fi 


tfi ./ ,- 




J 


W'w, .'aL "Tf ~' 1 


*Vl : -St-* 


|1| 




A|v 1 J*? ; 


ijjt/ 


fa" 





Para, Brazil 



constantly at war with the English, the Dutch, the 
French, and the Spanish for possession of this part 
of South America. However, Portugal was not 
only successful in holding what she had, but in ex- 
tending the boundaries of Brazil westward until 
they reached the crest of the Andes Mountains. 
Portugal at the close of the eighteenth century, 
when the colonies of other nations were planning 
to revolt from the mother countries, was in pos- 
session of one of the largest, most productive, and 
most valuable dominions on the globe. In fact, so 
wealthy is Brazil in natural resources and so vast 
in size that its possibilities are not fully realized 

189 



even today. Few people in North America know 
that Brazil is larger than the United States and 
richer in natural resources, perhaps, than any other 
land in the world. The majority know nothing at 
all about it. 

The government of Portugal, while not so brutal 
as that of Spain, was oppressive to a people with 
such opportunities and such resources. As was in- 
evitable, therefore, when the other colonies of South 
America were fighting for independence, the spirit 
of freedom spread in Brazil. The success of the 
United States had deeply affected this great colony, 
and in 1785 a Brazil club was organized to work 
for independence. The members corresponded with 
Thomas Jefferson, then United States minister to 
France. They asked the great philosopher and 
apostle of freedom to secure the aid of the United 
States. He wrote them that it was necessary first 
for Brazilians to show what they could do. They 
made one attempt at revolution but were suppressed 
and some of them were hanged and others banished. 

The independence of Brazil was not to come 
through the usual channel of revolution and war, 
as had been the experience of the Spanish colonies. 
In 1807, Portugal, unable to check the armies of 
Napoleon, was forced to yield to him. Prince John, 
regent of Portugal, realizing that he had a province 
in South America larger than half of Europe, de- 
cided to move his court to Brazil and thus escape 

190 



French tyranny. He arrived in America on Jan- 
uary 21, 1808, and established his court at Rio de 
Janeiro, which he made the capital of the country. 
Some years later- the queen died, and the regent 
became king under the title of John VI. 

While the other Spanish colonies of South Amer- 
ica were seeking independence from the Spanish 
king, the Brazilians welcomed their monarch with 
rejoicings and with the gratification arising from 
the fact that the seat of government was now Brazil 
instead of distant Europe. This made a great dif- 
ference in the history of that country. The people 
of Brazil, generally, were delighted to have their 
king with them. The whole nation seemed to forget 
its revolutionary leanings and made a spontaneous 
effort to show its ruler how well satisfied it was with 
monarchy. Dom John, for his part, was glad to 
have a splendid dominion in which to take refuge. 
While war raged in Europe and while Miranda, 
Bolivar, San Martin, and O'Higgins, were fighting 
for South American independence, he lived quietly 
in his new palace in Rio de Janeiro for thirteen 
years, with nothing to disturb him save here and 
there an expedition to put down a disturbance or 
to increase the size of his territories. 

Naturally, the country prospered more under the 
direct government of the king than it had before his 
coming. Repressive laws were repealed, and the 
people had more latitude in trading with foreign 

191 



nations ; hence, this was a period of great prosper- 
ity. The influx of many educated Portuguese and 
the introduction of the printing-press gave new life 
to the land. Many foreigners found Brazil a de- 
sirable place in which to live. English shipbuilders. 
Swedish iron-workers, German engineers, and 
French manufacturers settled in the country and 
gave it new industries. 

King John established a government in Brazil 
similar to that in Portugal. The upkeep of the 
court and the salaries of a large numher of officials 
increased the taxes, which the people were little 
disposed to pay. Moreover, the government was 
not in the hands of the Brazilians but of the Portu- 
guese who had followed the court across the sea. 
Discontent grew as taxes increased. John, how- 
ever, was of an amiable disposition, and the people, 
as a rule, liked him, though they were determined 
to have a representative government. They did not 
intend to be without a voice in the expenditure of 
public funds. The king's son sided with them. 
Finally in 1821, the king yielded. The people 
were thrilled with delight. 

The king's attention was called at this moment 
to conditions in Portugal. The European wars 
had ended, and Portuguese themselves were clam- 
oring for representative government. As the king 
could not leave Portugal to itself, he first decided 
to send thither the prince, his son, as regent. But 

192 



Dom Pedro had acquired such popularity and had 
exhibited such a thirst for glory that the king feared 
to trust his adventurous spirit in Europe. There- 
fore, he decided to go himself and leave his son as 
regent in Brazil. 

Soon after the arrival of the king in Portugal, 
the newly-elected parliament passed a decree order- 
ing the prince regent, Dom Pedro, to return to 
Portugal. This filled the Brazilians with alarm. 
They foresaw that without a central authority the 
country would fall back to its former status of 
colony. Consequently, some of the provinces began 
to clamor for independence. They wished to be 
separated entirely from Portugal. The province 
of Sao Paulo in the south asked the prince to dis- 
obey the decree of the Portuguese parliament and 
remain in Brazil. The council of Rio de Janeiro 
followed with a similar request. The Brazilians 
were keenly interested in Dom Pedro's attitude, 
for they realized that a critical moment had arrived. 
The prince was in the great coffee state of Sao 
Paulo when the parliamentary mandate was deliv- 
ered. The Brazilian leaders gathered around him, 
with a vast concourse of people, on September 7, 
1822. In the midst of the great assembly and with 
dramatic gestures, he laid the decree in the flames, 
and as it burnt to ashes he raised his hands aloft and 
exclaimed: "Independence or death!" 

The people were wild with joy. Since the young 

193 



prince would not obey the parliament and the court 
of Portugal, they made preparations to give him a 
warm welcome on his return to the capital. Every- 
thing was carefully timed for his* entrance into Rio 
de Janeiro, and when he appeared he was greeted 
with the wildest enthusiasm. On October 12, 1822, 
he was solemnly crowned Dom Pedro I., "Constitu- 
tional Emperor of Brazil." The country was at 
last free from Portugal ; the people would no longer 
take orders from the Portuguese court. This is how 
Brazil became an empire at a time that the other 
South American countries were becoming republics. 

The Portuguese troops and citizens who did not 
approve of the independence of Brazil were sent 
back to Portugal. A few feeble attempts were 
made by the mother country to reestablish its power. 
The Holy Alliance of Europe, referred to in an- 
other chapter, planned to come to Portugal's aid, 
but the sudden action of President Monroe in an- 
nouncing the Monroe Doctrine checked this move. 
Ilfll825, Portugal acknowledged its independence. 
Etfazil, therefore, secured freedom with less blood- 
shed than any other nation of South America. 

It was the only independent country in the New 
World that retained the monarchical form of gov- 
ernment. The other nations had banished all 
thought of a king or emperor. The Monroe Doc- 
trine laid down, the principle that European na- 
tions should not aid any country in the New World 

194 



in establishing such a government. It declared that 
no nation would of its own accord establish one. 

The monarchical form of government in Brazil 
was a source of much trouble, though many years 
passed before it was changed. Dom Pedro was 
unsuccessful as a ruler. There were insurrections 
and wars with other countries. In utter despair 
of ever enjoying peace and quiet, he suddenly, in 
March, 1831, without consulting anyone, abdicated 
in favor of his infant son, who became Dom Pedro 
II., the last emperor in the New World. 



W5 



CHAPTER XV 

THE LAST EMPEROR OF BRAZIL 

Brazil has experienced fewer changes of govern- 
ment than any other South American country. 
When Dom Pedro was crowned emperor of Brazil, 
4he people rejoiced because of the separation from 
Portugal. Yet the Brazilians, like the citizens of 
other South American states, were universally dis- 
contented. One faction was opposed to absolutism 
but feared anarchy if the emperor fell. Another 
party wanted to have a strong — almost absolute — 
government. Dom Pedro won some popularity by 
persuading the councils to adopt a constitution in 
1824. Later, however, he was engaged in a war 
with Argentina and suffered a severe defeat. His 
administration, as a result, became so unpopular 
that, as we have seen, he abdicated in 1831 in favor 
of his son, then only five years of age, and left the 
country forever. 

The son became emperor under the title of Dom 
Pedro II. For the first ten years after his father's 
abdication, the government was in the hands of a 
regent, who was regularly elected like a president. 
The effort to establish a representative government 

196 



proved a failure because of the bitter factional 
struggles and the unpreparedness of the Brazilians 
for self-rule. At length the people became so dis- 
satisfied that in 1840 Dom Pedro was declared old 
enough to take charge. He was then just fifteen 
years of age. This measure improved conditions 
very little in the period before the emperor himself 
was mature enough to rule. When he reached man- 
hood, he made an excellent constitutional emperor 
and was perhaps the ablest ruler in South America 
for more than a generation. Brazil prospered 
greatly under his reign. Occasional political out- 
breaks occurred, but none was sufficiently impor- 
tant to disturb the government seriously. The em- 
peror was opposed to war, and his nation was strong 
enough to repel invasion, though it was occasionally 
drawn into conflicts with neighboring states to the 
south. These wars did not seriously interfere with 
the prosperity of Brazil or greatly affect the popu- 
larity of the emperor. 

Dom Pedro was a highly educated man and he 
desired to improve the intellectual condition of his 
people. He founded schools and promoted the 
cause of education generally. Realizing that Brazil 
was capable of a great development, he sought to 
attract citizens from other countries. He visited 
Europe and the United States several times, in the 
effort to show the world the extent of Brazilian re- 
sources. He also made a study of liberal govern- 

197 



ments in order that his own nation might profit 
by their experience. 

Dom Pedro was so simple in his manners and so 
democratic in his way of living that the Brazilians 
were very fond of him. He mixed with them freely 
— altogether unlike the tyrants of South America 
or the kings and emperors of Europe of that period. 
He was profoundly interested in the prosperity of 
his people and everything that concerned them. He 
cared little for his personal appearance. His cloth- 
ing was ill-fitting and shabby. He might be seen 
driving about the streets of Rio de Janeiro in a 
rickety old carriage with broken-down horses, just 
like any, careless trader or farmer. A stranger 
seeing the kindly, fatherly old gentleman stopping 
here and there to converse with people would never 
have guessed that he was the ruler of one of the 
largest countries on earth. 

The period from 1845 to 1870 was one of revolu- 
tion throughout the world. It was the age in which 
the German Empire was created, when France be- 
came a republic, when Italy was united, when the 
War between the States was fought in the United 
States. In fact, nearly every important nation was 
involved in war during this time. Many citizens 
of these countries, disturbed by wars and the evils 
resulting from them, grew dissatisfied with their 
native lands and sought homes elsewhere. Dom 
Pedro used the opportunity afforded by this general 

198 



unrest to present the advantages of Brazil, espe- 
cially southern Brazil, as a place in which to live. 

Many Southerners of the United States became 
interested in Brazil immediately after the War be- 
tween the States. Representatives from South 
Carolina and Georgia were sent to southern Brazil 
to make investigations. They traveled over a large 
part of the country and on their return reported 
that Dom Pedro had not exaggerated its possibili- 
ties. The climate was very similar to that of Geor- 
gia, Alabama', and Florida; cotton, corn, sugar cane, 
tobacco, grapes, and watermelons grew as well in 
Brazil as in the Southern States of North America. 
As a result of this survey, several hundred men, 
women, and children from South Carolina, Georgia, 
Alabama, Louisiana, and other parts of the South 
settled in Sao Paulo, one of the southern states of 
Brazil, in the period from 1866 to 1870. The name 
of one of these settlements has been for years Villa 
Americana. Here the people laid out their farms, 
built homes, such as they were accustomed to in the 
United States, and bought slaves to work their 
fields. Soon many of them became prosperous. 
They produced from one to two bales of cotton an 
acre and raised the finest watermelons in the world. 
Yet cotton was not the chief agricultural 
product of southern Brazil. The state of Sao Paulo 
is famous the world over for coffee. Dom Pedro, 
seeing the great possibilities of this product, encour- 

199 




Copyright, E. M. Newman 

Emperor Pedro II 



aged its cultivation and was instrumental in extend- 
ing its sale until almost every civilized nation im- 
ported it from Brazil. Villa Americana lay in the 
richest coffee country in the world. Settlers came 
thither in great numbers from Germany, Italy, 
France, England, and other European countries. 

Wealthy Brazilians, dwelling on their coffee 
plantations, had good homes and lived well. They 
were friendly neighbors. Still they had many cus- 
toms that Europeans did not like. Portuguese, 
Brazilians, Indians, free negroes, and all shades of 
mixed races associated freely. They visited each 
other in their homes and formed business partner- 

200 



ships. The children of all races attended the same 
schools and churches; and the men and women of 
, all races intermarried. The Brazilian is a new race 
formed from this amalgamation, which has been 
going on for several centuries. 

At the time that Villa Americana was founded, 
Brazilian parents decided whom their children were 
to marry: the boy or girl had very little to say in 
the matter. When a young man fell in love with a 
young lady, he first mentioned the matter to her 
parents. The question was taken up by them. On 
a certain evening the family and near relatives of 
both parties met. The young man unfolded his 
reasons for desiring to marry the young woman. 
The parents, if favorably impressed, gave their 
consent. Rings were produced and exchanged be- 
tween the young man and young woman, and the 
evening was devoted to dancing and music. Next 
morning the young couple, accompanied by rela- 
tives, attended a religious service, and the engage- 
ment was announced and published in the papers. 
The couple then appeared together in public places 
with a chap er one. After the engagement was an- 
nounced, the future bride could not appear in public 
with any other young man or the prospective bride- 
groom with any other young woman. The marriage 
was expected to follow within a year. 

Besides this custom, the Americans found other 
usages that impressed them as singular. Fashion- 

201 



able Brazilians dressed extravagantly. In pros- 
perous families even small children wore expensive 
jewelry. The men always kept their shoes well- 
polished and fretted if their clothes were not always 
in perfect order. On entering one of the better 
homes, coffee was invariably served ; water was kept 
boiling all the time for that purpose. Wherever 
one went coffee was served. People drank it in the 
cafes, much as people today in North America take 
soft drinks in drug stores. Another custom that 
seemed peculiar to the Americans was the conduct 
of the population when a funeral procession was 
passing. Everybody would stop and remain with 
hat off until the procession had passed. 

Girls were not permitted to appear in public 
when strangers were present, and if visitors were 
in the home girls were not seen. Even their mothers 
did not sit at the table with strange guests. Since 
that time, however, the women of Brazil have ac- 
quired more freedom as a result of the influence of 
the foreigners who have settled in the country. The 
customs of the Brazilians, so different from those 
to which Americans and Europeans were accus- 
tomed, had the effect at first of causing foreigners 
to live in separate settlements and have little to do 
with the native people. The Americans were con- 
fronted by another disagreeable circumstance. The 
Brazilians were able to pronounce or spell their 
names only with difficulty, and it was hard for Bra- 

202 



zilians to trade with them. Therefore, many Ameri- 
cans changed their names entirely or added Portu- 
guese affixes or suffixes, so that they could be more 
easily pronounced. North Americans likewise find 
it hard to pronounce foreign names. So in the same 
way, foreigners sometimes have their names 
changed after coming to the United States. 

Although the Americans were in the midst of a 
coffee country, they did not at first attempt to 
produce coffee. They confined themselves to rais- 
ing cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, rice, and water- 
melons. They could easily raise one and one-half 
bales of cotton to the acre, and the finest of water- 
melons. Since that time Villa Americana has be- 
come the greatest watermelon center of Brazil. 

The production of coffee, however, due to the 
influence of Dom Pedro, has overshadowed every- 
thing else in Sao Paulo. Santos, the largest city in 
Sao Paulo, is the greatest coffee port in the world. 
A traveler, returning a few years ago from that city 
after visiting Villa Americana, wrote : 

"No matter which way you turn or where you go 
coffee looms up in some form or other. If you walk 
down a street you see drays going by laden with 
sacks of the berry ; if you go near the railroads you 
see train-loads of it ; if you go to the docks you see 
ships laden with it; if you go into a cafe it is served 
to you instead of the drinks usually found in such 
places. You smell coffee everywhere." A large 

203 



percentage of the coffee of the world is cultivated 
in the state of Sao Paulo and passes through the 
streets of Santos. 

A couple of centuries ago coffee was considered 
a medicine, not a beverage, and was sold as a drug, 
though it has been known in the Orient as a drink 
for a thousand years. At the opening of the 
eighteenth century, people in Europe and America 
began to use it as a beverage. At that time it was 
not cultivated in South America; it was derived 
chiefly from Abyssinia and was sold to America by 
the Turks, who called it "kahveh." When the Eng- 
lish spelt the word, it became "coffee." 

The beverage grew to be such a popular drink 
that other nations tried to cultivate it. The condi- 
tions required for its production are a warm, moist 
climate and a rich, well-drained soil. It was discov- 
ered that Sao Paulo possessed the right kind of soil 
and climate. At the time Villa Americana was 
founded, the province was becoming famous for its 
production of coffee. The reader may be inter- 
ested to learn more of this great industry promoted 
by Dom Pedro. 

The coffee seed is planted, as a rule, in a nursery ; 
as soon as the sprouts are twelve or fifteen inches 
high, they are taken up and planted in rows from 
fifteen to twenty feet apart. About the third year 
the plant begins to bear flowers and a small quantity 
of berries, but not until the fifth year does it begin 

204 



to pay for the cost of cultivation. For twenty years 
the tree produces abundantly. Many te-ees, when 
well-cared for, continue to bear until they are fifty 
and even seventy- five years old. 

The flower is very pretty and has a sweet jas- 
mine-like perfume, but it withers and falls off after 
about twenty-four hours, when a little green berry 
begins to form. This berry requires about seven 
months to ripen, and then it is very much like a 
ripe red cherry, though occasionally of a deep yel- 
low color. 

If you will examine a coffee bean you will notice 
that one side is nearly flat. The berry contains two 
beans stuck together. When the berry is gathered 
the beans are separated, and the thin, light skin 
covering each bean is removed by soaking in water 
and by drying and rubbing. After this the beans 
are graded and are ready for the market. 

One small plantation may contain 10,000 coffee 
trees, requiring the attention of about three or four 
people. By careful work, such a plantation will 
produce from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels annually, 
which, at the usual prices, will net the owner a 
good income. 

A young coffee plantation looks very much like 
a cherry orchard. The months of May and June 
are the period of harvest. Some of the estates, or 
fazendas, are very large, containing as much as 
15,000 acres of land. Large corporations are 

205 



formed for cultivating and marketing the coffee 
crop. The government looks upon this industry 
with such favor that it determines the number of 
acres that may be cultivated in order to maintain 
favorable prices. 

Long lines of railroads have been built through 
coffee estates, and the country has prospered tre- 
mendously. The owner of a plantation usually 
lives in becoming style. He has his own automobile, 
and passes from one field to another quickly. He 
is generally well-educated, being able to speak Eng- 
lish, French, and Spanish, in addition to his own 
language. 

Dom Pedro, in encouraging the agricultural 
development of Brazil, in which he took great 
pride, saw the southern and eastern portions of 
his country becoming rich and prosperous. Great 
cattle farms were established by foreigners, who 
settled in large numbers in Brazil. As the planta- 
tions developed, slavery extended. The cultivation 
of coffee, sugar cane, and cotton depended upon 
slave labor. But the enlightened nations of the 
world had done away with slavery. Dom Pedro, 
being a student of government and a humane ruler, 
desired to see his country follow the example of 
other nations and put an end to slavery, which was 
contrary to the intelligence of the world. 

In 1884 two of the states of Brazil freed their 
slaves. But the leading land-owners in the coffee 

206 



and cotton regions did not see how their great 
estates could be successfully conducted if the slaves 
were freed. Dom Pedro was growing old and 
feeble, and the Brazilians realized that he would 
probably be unable in the future to give much atten- 
tion to public affairs. He had already largely 
turned over the government to his daughter, the 
Princess Isabella, whose husband was much dis- 
liked. The agitation for the freedom of the slaves, 
together with the unpopularity of Princess Isabella 
and her husband, fostered the desire for a republic. 
All classes liked Dom Pedro, but in the last years 
of his reign he spent most of his time in Europe 
while the movement for freeing the slaves and 
establishing a different form of government went 
on. The Princess Isabella, who acted as regent, 
was even more opposed to slavery than was her 
father. She was so hostile to it that she did not 
believe the government should even pay the owners 
on liberating the slaves. This angered the land- 
owners, who feared what might happen on the death 
of the emperor and realized that he coald not live 
much longer. 

Through the influence of Princess Isabella, a law 
was passed in 1886 setting all the slaves free. It 
had little opposition because it was seen that the 
whole world was against slavery. The wealthy 
land-owners, however, informed Princess Isabella 
that this measure meant the fall of the empire, 

207 



which was already unpopular because of the auto- 
cratic power of the princess and her husband, a 
penurious old man who cared only for his own com- 
fort and pleasure and had little sympathy with the 
Brazilians. 

This state of unrest, coupled with the discontent 
caused by the emancipation of the slaves, brought 
the various factions together in a determination to 
establish a republican form of government, at least 
on the emperor's death. All the other nations on 
the continent had republican governments, and the 
feeling was general that monarchical forms should 
be abolished in the New World. 

In the midst of this crisis, Dom Pedro returned 
from Europe. His officials, some of whom were 
very unpopular, attempted to send the army away 
from the capital and disperse it, since it was appar- 
ent that the government could not rely on the troops 
to protect it in the growing dissatisfaction. In fact, 
the military leaders were openly in favor of a repub- 
lic. Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, the head of the 
army, resisted the order of the officials. Realizing 
that the time had come to act, he ordered the arrest 
of some of the government officials who seemed to 
be usurping authority. Many patriotic Brazilians 
wished to put an end to the empire and to establish 
a republic such as the United States. Nevertheless, 
a great majority of the people little dreamed that 
the emperor was to be dethroned. 

208 



On November 14, 1889, a group of citizens met 
at the municipal palace and formed a provisional 
government, electing Marshal Fonseca as head. 
The palace was surrounded and the aged emperor, 
greatly astonished at the progress of the revolution, 
received a notice that the peace of the nation and 
the prosperity of the people depended upon the 
abolition of the empire and the erection of a repub- 
lican form of government. 

The people loved Dom Pedro, but he was too 
feeble to guide the affairs of state. The revolution- 
ists knew that if he remained in Brazil the imperial 
faction would seek to have him reinstated or, if he 
should not live long enough for that, that the pres- 
ence of his daughter and her husband might be the 
cause of a bloody civil war. In the note that was 
sent him announcing the transition from empire to 
republic were these words: 

"We are forced to notify you that the provisional 
government expects from your patriotism the sacri- 
fice of leaving Brazilian territory with your family 
in the shortest possible time." 

In order to provide sufficiently for the emperor's 
household, the provisional government agreed to 
pay him and his family £350,000, or nearly two mil- 
lion dollars, and make a yearly allowance of 
£26,000, or about $150,000, on condition that the 
family embarked the next day on a vessel that lay 
in the harbor waiting for them. 

209 



The emperor, broken with age and ill-health, 
complied with the demand, sending the following 
note to the provisional government: 

"In view of the address handed to me on the 
17th of November at three o'clock in the afternoon, 
I resolve to start with my family for Europe to- 
morrow, leaving this beloved country, to which I 
have tried to give firm testimony of my affectionate 
love and devotion during nearly half a century as 
chief of the State. I shall always retain a kindly 
remembrance of Brazil and cherish hopes for its 
prosperity." 

The next morning the vessel lay in readiness, 
and the emperor and his family were escorted 
aboard. The deposed monarch knew that times had 
changed and that the people thereafter would prefer 
to choose their own rulers. The steamer conveying 
him and his family was convoyed away from the 
coast of Brazil by a small naval squadron. Two 
years later Dom Pedro II., the last emperor of 
Brazil, died in Paris. 

Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca was elected first 
president of Brazil, and later a constitution very 
similar to that of the United States was adopted. 
Under it the provinces, twenty-one in all, became 
states with separate legislatures. It took some 
years for the people to grow used to a republican 
form of government, but Brazil today is recognized 
as one of the foremost republics of the world. 

210 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE WONDERFUL AMAZON 

The Amazon is the most wonderful river in the 
world. In the first place, it is the largest river in 
the world and has more navigable tributaries than 
any other. Ocean steamers may ascend it for more 
than two thousand miles and smaller steamers for 
nearly a thousand miles further. 

At its mouth it is about two hundred miles wide. 
It is a vast river system, containing more than three 
hundred and fifty branches and tributaries and 
draining nearly half of South America. 

In fact, the Amazon is too large even to have one 
name, and until South America was explored the 
various tribes of Indians gave different names to 
the parts inhabited by them. Even today it is 
divided into three parts and called by three names. 
It is the Amazon from its mouth to where the Rio 
Negro empties into it. From the Rio Negro to the 
Peruvian border it is called the Solimoes; and in 
Peru it is known as the Maranon. People say that 
it has many tributaries as large as the Hudson or 
the Potomac that have never been explored and are 
wholly unknown to geography. 

211 



The great valley had much interest for former 
President Roosevelt, who had a desire to visit this 
back country of Brazil and explore some of its 
rivers. In 1914, five years after his term of office 
as president of the United States had expired, he 
explored one of the Amazonian tributaries, which 
he called "The River of Doubt." He chose to enter 
the country not by way of the Amazon but by the 
Rio de la Plata. Thence he sailed up the Paraguay 
several hundred miles and, crossing overland a com- 
paratively small distance, came to "The River of 
Doubt." Few knew anything of this river at that 
time, what its source was, or into what body of 
water it flowed. Following the course of the stream, 
he proved to the world that it emptied into the 
Madeira, which flows into the Amazon just below 
the Rio Negro. The Brazilian government named 
the new river Rio Roosevelt, in honor of President 
Roosevelt, but later it was changed to Rio Teodoro 
(The river of Theodore), after President Roose- 
velt's Christian name. One of the tributaries was 
named Rio Kermit in honor of Kermit Roosevelt, 
President Roosevelt's son, who accompanied his 
father on this expedition. 

The towns and cities on the Amazon are very 
interesting to travelers. They are the outgrowth 
of the resources of the great Amazon valley, which 
is more varied in its products and perhaps more 
interesting than any other river valley in the world. 

212 



Para (Belem), one of the oldest cities in Brazil, 
is situated near the mouth of the Amazon. It was 
a prosperous city of several thousand inhabitants 
long before any English settlements were made in 
North America. Para is famous as the greatest 
rubber market in the world. The Amazon valley 
is the original home of the rubber tree, from which 
India rubber is extracted. As Santos in southern 
Brazil is the greatest coffee port in the world, so 
Para in the north is the greatest rubber port in the 
world. Para rubber is known wherever rubber is 
used. 

About five hundred miles up the Amazon is San- 
tarem, a place of considerable size. Soon after the 
North Americans came to Brazil, after the War 
between the States, about fifty families of them set- 
tled on the Amazon near Santarem and, establish- 
ing plantations, began the cultivation of cotton, 
sugar cane, and rice. About five hundred miles be- 
yond Santarem is Manaos, another large city. It 
is situated on the Bio Negro, a few miles above the 
Amazon; back of Manaos is a vast country still 
unexplored and, of course, undeveloped. 

A traveler going from Para to Manaos would see 
many strange things. In fact, Para itself would 
present surprises to him. He would see all types 
of the population of Brazil and even of South 
America. He would see the swarthy Portuguese, 
cultured and prosperous. He would see foreigners 

213 



from every country — North Americans, English- 
men, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, and others: 
some prosperous and some of the lowest poverty. 
He would see the Brazilian proud of his country, 
the office-holder, or, perhaps, the bandit type. He 
would see many negroes, some almost naked, doing 
odd jobs for a living. Moreover, he might see, in 
the wealthier and more cultured classes, representa- 
tives of many races, including negroes, Indians, 
foreigners, and Brazilians, all associating on terms 
of equality. All races and classes and degrees of 
people meet in the streets of Para. Street peddlers 
may be seen offering for sale birds, snakes, mon- 
keys, and the various strange products of a tropical 
clime. 

If the traveler wished to visit the homes he would 
find every sort, from palaces to filthy hovels. In 
many homes he would be surprised on entering to 
see a snake coiled up in the corner of the room and 
protected as a household pet, in much the same 
manner as cats and dogs are in our homes. These 
snakes, as a rule, are of the boa-constrictor type 
and are useful in keeping the place free from mice 
and rats, which are a great pest in Para. Poisonous 
serpents, of course, are not domesticated. It is said 
the snakes do their work very well and live on terms 
of peace and harmony with the members of the 
family. On the streets, one will find peddlers offer- 
ing for sale a choice selection of ratkillers and 

215 



advertising their rare qualities in truly salesman- 
like manner. 

The Amazon valley seems to be the home of all 
the snakes in the world, but not many species are 
poisonous. However, they are numerous enough 
to destroy much life. The Brazilian government, 
therefore, has established a hospital in which to treat 
people bitten by snakes, and a staff of physicians is 
employed to find a cure or a remedy that will make 
the individual immune from snake poison. 

Thousands of adventurers annually visit the 
wonderful valley. Some seek the rubber tree, or 
the crude rubber collected by the natives; others 
gather Brazilian nuts and cocoa; others hunt wild 
game; still others collect specimens of beautiful 
birds, curious insects and monkeys, or inspect the 
fine lumber trees and dye-woods and purchase 
stock-farms or cotton and sugar plantations. So 
little of this wonderful country has been developed 
that it is a fair field for all comers. 

If you will take your map and follow the Amazon 
from Para to Manaos, you will see a number of 
islands. One of them near the mouth of the river 
is about a hundred miles in breadth. This will give 
you an idea of the width of the Amazon river. 
Many foreigners have settled along the banks of 
the river and on the islands. Great stock-farms 
have been developed here and there, and numbers 
of cattle and horses are raised. 

216 



As one proceeds westward, the Amazon presents 
new sights at every turn. .The forest is alive with 
insects, birds and beasts. The most beautiful birds 
in the world are found here, birds of such gorgeous 
plumage of every color and hue that they delight 
the naturalist. The Amazon is the hunter's para- 
dise. Every kind of game may be found — monkeys, 
wild fowl, jaguars, wild pigs, tremendous serpents 
that roll over in the water like sea dragons; all 
these and many other forms of life unlike those of 
any other continent keep the hunter busy. 

However, the insects are a pestilence. Mosqui- 
toes are so bad in some sections that it is almost 
impossible for travelers to live unless they take 
precautions in advance and protect themselves 
with great care. 

As the steamer plows its way up the river, nu- 
merous flocks of parrots may be seen every morning 
and evening flying across the boat. The sluggish 
streams flowing into the Amazon are alive with 
alligators and all kinds of fish. The mornings and 
evenings are filled with the chatter and challenge 
of monkeys swinging from limb to limb and from 
tree to tree. 

Hunting alligators was at one time a favorite 
occupation of the natives. They would rush into 
the water in dull and sluggish streams and with 
long poles drive the animals to the bank, where 
other natives stood ready to lasso or harpoon them. 

217 



When the brutes had been pulled out of the water, 
a native would creep up with an ax and cut a deep 
gash in his tail, for the alligator fights with his 
tail. Another blow across the neck would keep 
him from biting. Thus disabled and rendered 
harmless, he was left alone while the natives went 
off to capture others. When a number of alligators 
had been killed, they were cut open and the fat 
was taken out and stuffed in their skins. The oil 
made from alligator fat is very valuable. There is 
a smaller kind of alligator that is good to eat. 

When travelers run short of food, they hunt 
wild pigs or monkeys. Monkey meat is consid- 
ered by the natives a delicious food. When pre- 
pared for cooking, it looks much like dressed rab- 
bit. A traveler on the Amazon may sit down to a 
dinner where many strange dishes are served. He 
may choose between fried monkey, alligator tail, 
boiled turtle eggs, wild pig, and a variety of fish 
and game. 

In going from Para to Manaos one still hears 
strange stories of river serpents that live in the 
Amazon and of wild Indians, who at one time made 
travel dangerous and difficult. What would you 
do if you suddenly saw a frightful water monster 
raise his body about ten feet out of the water, shake 
his head and neck savagely, and roll over with so 
much force as to rock the steamboat? Such is the 
anaconda, the largest snake in the world, being 

218 



from thirty to forty feet long and about five or six 
feet around. Some people say that the anaconda 
has been known to attain a length of sixty feet and 
a girth of fifteen feet. When not hungry this im- 
mense snake usually lies in the mud sunning him- 
self, but when seeking food it climbs a tree near 
the water and waits quietly until dark. Then it is 
able to choose its food from the beasts that come 
to drink. The serpent belongs to the same family 
as the boa-constrictor, which is much smaller. The 
Brazilians frequently capture the boa constrictor, 
it is so lazy and harmless. They even train it to 
protect the home, as was told above. 

One of the most valuable products of the river 
is the sea cow, which is half fish and half animal, 
and about fifteen or twenty feet long. It is usu- 
ally taken with the harpoon. As the oil is exceed- 
ingly valuable, it has been much hunted. 

Another interesting game animal is the wild 
pig. Pigs were found in Peru by Pizarro when 
he first landed. They are not very harmful unless 
they are hunted, but when one is killed or wounded 
the whole drove turns on the hunter and, unless he 
is very agile, kills him. 

All along the river one may see Indians, but the 
farther one goes from the coast the less civilized 
they are. When a traveler enters the part of 
Brazil west or north of Manoas, he may encounter 
bands of Indians almost as wild as they were when 

219 



the Portuguese first entered the country. One 
still hears stories of fierce cannibals who used to 
capture prisoners and make a feast for the tribe. 
It is said that it was the custom for the women to 
lead the prisoners in. The men, after drinking a 
strong beverage until they became savagely drunk, 
would torture the prisoners to the great delight of 
the assembly. Then the chief would enter with a 
club and kill the victims one by one. The can- 
nibals all disappeared many years ago. 

Nearly all of the population west of Santarem 
is Indian, and travelers tell even today of their 
strange manners and customs. Their method of 
hunting in certain wild sections of the Amazon 
valley is as primitive as in the days of Pizarro. 
The blow-gun is one of the weapons still used 
among the most uncivilized tribes. This consists 
of a large reed ten or twelve feet long, perfectly 
straight, through which are blown small arrows 
tipped at one end with a sharp metal while the 
other end contains a piece of cotton to prevent the 
air from passing through as the arrow is being 
shot. The natives hide in trees until a bird appears 
within twenty or thirty feet. With the blow-gun 
they can pierce the bird by blowing an arrow 
through the reed. For killing large animals, they 
use arrows tipped with poison so deadly that it par- 
alyzes the muscles, and, the victims die a horrible 
death. These arrows are likewise used in war and 

220 



the effect on human beings is almost instantaneous : 
death results in a few minutes. Bows and arrows 
are also used. A skillful hunter shoots with un- 
erring aim and can pierce a turtle through the neck 
at an incredible distance. It is doubtful whether 
Robin Hood was more skillful than these Indians 
in the use of bow and arrow. 

A traveler must respect the customs of the In- 
dians in this wilderness if he expects to continue 
his journey without trouble. One may travel for 
miles without seeing any sign of a human being. 
In fact it often appears that the entire country is 
uninhabited. But at nightfall, while the traveler 
is sitting at the camp-fire and fighting mosquitoes 
or other pests, he will hear a strange, shrill cry. 
If he is acquainted with the habits of the Indians, 
he knows at once that a band of them surrounds 
him and that a warning has been given. 

Nothing is done until next morning, when the 
traveler hangs some presents of colored cloth or 
beads, or a small mirror, on the trees in the neigh- 
borhood whence the warning came. Then the 
traveler returns to camp and waits. No Indians 
appear, but the journey must not be continued 
until the unseen natives give some sign. If no 
cries are heard the second night and the presents 
are taken, the traveler will find on the following 
morning an arrow sticking in the ground. This 
is a token that the Indians are friendly and that 

221 



the journey may be continued. But if the cries 
are heard again and the presents remain untouched, 
the meaning is that the journey must be abandoned. 
To disregard the warning and go on, is very dan- 
gerous. 

If you will take your map and follow the Rio 
Negro northward, you will come to another river, 
called the Rio Branco. At one time it was believed 
that a race of female warriors lived in the moun- 
tains between these two rivers. The country they 
inhabited was El Dorado, supposed to contain vast 
treasures of gold and silver and precious stones. 
These women wore their hair short like men and 
were very skillful hunters with the bow and arrow. 
It was told that wherever one of them went she 
was accompanied by a waiting maid, who served 
her very much as the pages in the Middle Ages 
served knights. 

The Indians, in speaking of this strange country, 
said that it lay between two great rivers, one of 
which flowed with black water and the other with 
white water — hence, the names Bio Negro and 
Rio Branco. Between these two rivers lie moun- 
tains that contained, they said, great treasures 
guarded by Amazons. 

No man has yet been found who has actually 
seen an army composed of women, ^ong before 
South America was discovered the people of Eu- 
rope heard stories of female warriors, and it was 

222 



supposed that they lived somewhere near the Black 
Sea, where an independent kingdom existed under 
the government of a queen, who occasionally with 
her fierce women would swoop down on neighbor- 
ing regions and play havoc with her armies. Men 
were not permitted to reside in this country ruled 
by women. If any of the women left the country 
and married, when they returned their husbands 
were not permitted to accompany them and all male 
children were put to death. Female children were 
kept and brought up by their mothers and trained 
in agriculture, hunting, and the arts of war. These 
warlike women were called Amazons. 

Such legends were told throughout Europe long 
before Columbus was born and were handed down 
in much the same manner as folk stories are told 
by father to son today. 

Orellana, a Spanish soldier serving under Pi- 
zarro, crossed the Andes from Peru and, descend- 
ing, explored the headwaters of the great river. 
When he and his men entered this wild country, 
they were surrounded by a tribe of very warlike 
Indians, and, to their surprise, they saw women 
fighting side by side with men. The Spaniards 
believed that they had encountered Amazons, and 
a story arose that a race of warlike women lived 
to the north of this country. In such fashion the 
name Amazon came to be applied to the great 
river. 

223 



Many people actually believed that a race of 
female warriors guarded treasures in the mountains 
between the Rio Negro and the Rio Branco. Sir 
Walter Raleigh, you will remember, sought to 
find this fabled land. Numbers of other expedi- 
tions went in search of it. Companies were actu- 
ally formed to encounter these strange women. 
All that remains today of these stories and the 
expeditions is the name given to the most wonder- 
ful river in the world. 



224 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE LAZY MAN'S TREE 

A few years ago a traveler from North America 
was visiting one of the sugar plantations on the 
Amazon. As the host walked with him through 
the plantation, they came to a large tree standing 
alone in the middle of a cane field. 

"That," said the planter, "is the lazy man's 
tree." 

It was a tall and exceedingly large rubber tree, 
belonging, perhaps, to what had once been a rub- 
ber estate, or seringa!. It stood alone, long after 
rubber-hunters had extracted all the sap that it was 
possible to collect from the forest, and what had 
once been a rubber estate was now a sugar plan- 
tation. 

For years all adventurers up the Amazon 
thought little of developing the resources of the 
country and thus building it up with a stable popu- 
lation. It was so easy to make a fortune collecting 
rubber that only a few settlers thought of cultivat- 
ing the soil. Although many thousands of people 
were attracted to the Amazon valley annually, 
they had no particular interest in the country ex- 

225 




Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 

Milking a Rubber Tree 

cept to take from it the most valuable natural 
product of the time. 

Rubber was not known to the outside world until 
the Amazon valley was explored, and not until 
near the middle of the nineteenth century did it 
come into commercial use. Explorers brought into 
trading relations with the South American Indians 
saw the natives playing with soft elastic balls of 
a very peculiar formation. They also saw some 
of the Indians wearing shoes made of the same sub- 
stance. It was further discovered that this peculiar 

226 



material had the power of removing lead-pencil 
marks from paper. It was, therefore, called "rub- 
ber," because it rubbed out marks. The Indians, 
in hardening the rubber, sometimes used a clay 
mold resembling the human foot. In this way they 
molded rubber shoes that were worn by the natives 
long before the North Americans or Europeans 
knew of such things. The Indians made many other 
articles from it that excited the wonder of for- 
eigners. 

When North America and Europe really learned 
the value of rubber and the many uses that could 
be made of it, thousands of adventurers nocked into 
the Amazon valley. As a result, many fortunes 
were made by foreigners. Traders would go up 
the river seeking rubber trees, depending upon 
negroes or Indians for labor. They never thought 
of cultivating the land, which was very fertile, but 
brought food a thousand or even two thousand miles 
up the river to support them while they "milked" 
the rubber trees. Consequently, until compara- 
tively recent times, there have been few attempts to 
develop the country back from the coast. 

The man who owned a rubber estate, or seringal, 
and could work it properly had a small fortune 
awaiting him. The seringal included a large area 
marked out in a dense forest containing rubber 
trees here and there. In some places it was almost 
impossible to reach the trees without cutting a path 

227 



through the tough undergrowth. This had to be 
done while fighting snakes, wild beasts, mosquitoes, 
flies, and a variety of other pestiferous insects. 
Sometimes the land was under water the whole 
year, or it might be under water only during the 
rainy season. Before 1867, foreign nations, as a 
rule, were not permitted to send trading vessels 
up the Amazon. But about that time Dom Pedro, 
desiring to increase the trade of Brazil, threw the 
whole valley open to the world. There was great 
rivalry, therefore, in the rubber industry, and rub- 
ber-hunters from all quarters of the globe flocked 
in large numbers to the valley. This was the be- 
ginning of the great expansion in the rubber indus- 
try. As a result, the world today largely derives 
from this valley one of its most valuable products. 

How many articles made from rubber are used 
in your home and in your community? When you 
attempt to answer that question you will see how 
necessary rubber is. In what way is the material 
of commerce derived from the rubber tree? This 
question puzzled North Americans and Europeans 
for years. 

It is extracted from the rubber tree in much the 
same way that turpentine is obtained from the pine 
tree in the South. Early in the morning the tapper 
goes through the forest and with a hatchet gashes 
the sides of the trees. Under each gash he fastens 
a cup to catch the milk that flows therefrom. In 

228 











-'"ii. -i-v^ 




Bgk, m 








HBr; , 


KsSE 



Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 

Making a "Ball" of Rubber 



the afternoon he returns and collects the liquid 
accumulated in the cups. 

The rubber tree has become so valuable that other 
nations have transplanted it, in order that they 
may not be wholly dependent upon the Amazonian 
forests. It is now cultivated in Ceylon, India, 
Malaya, and Australia: these countries annually 
produce large quantities of rubber. 

There are a great many varieties of rubber-bear- 
ing trees and plants, but the best is found in the 
Amazon basin. This is a large tree, often as much 
as twelve feet in circumference, and very tall. The 

229 



young trees begin to yield milk after the fourth 
year, and may be systematically tapped for twenty 
years and more. Some have been known to yield 
milk for more than fifty years. 

The method of gathering the milk and hardening 
it for the market is interesting. After the estate 
is laid off, a tapper will have from a hundred to a 
hundred and fifty trees to look after. The tropical 
growth is so dense as to make it difficult to pass 
through the forest. Therefore, the tapper has to 
cut a path from tree to tree. He usually makes 
his path in the form of a circle, so that when he has 
finished his day's work he will be back at his start- 
ing-point. In the evening he completes his round, 
gathering the milk from the cups in a large vessel 
It is interesting to see how this milky fluid is turned 
into hard rubber. After collecting the milk for the 
day, the tapper builds a fire and on each side of 
the fire drives down a forked stick. Oily palm- 
nuts are thrown into the flames, as the smoke pro- 
duced thereby is essential to giving the right kind 
of hardening to the rubber. Over the fire is placed 
a horizontal pole. The milky fluid is pasted on the 
pole just above the fire, and it at once begins to 
harden. Then more milk is added. With one 
hand the tapper slaps the milk on the pole and with 
the other keeps the pole turning round and round. 
The ball of rubber enlarges as fresh milk is added, 
until it grows to be about the size of a man's head, 

230 



but sometimes it is the shape of a ham, hence the 
term "ham" of rubber or "biscuit" of rubber. After 
the product of the day has hardened, this "smoked 
ham" of rubber is ready for the market without 
further preparation. 

The most successful rubber gatherers are those 
who know how to make the Indians work. Their 
estates are sometimes located in wild, undeveloped 
sections of the country, where only the Indians can 
stand the snakes and the mosquitoes, and other 
insects that swarm in that damp climate. More- 
over, the overseer must be prepared to protect him- 
self and the servants from the dangerous wild 
beasts lurking in the forest. A good overseer, 
knowing the nature of the Indians, will keep for 
distribution a lot of cheap and gaudy articles — 
clothing and other things. With this bait, he may 
succeed in coaxing the Indians to work for him. 
However, after an estate has been laid off, only a 
few hours a day are required to keep up with the 
work. Rubber collecting is not strenuous labor. 

The life on a rubber estate is interesting and full 
of adventure. Once an overseer built his little 
cabin on high posts near the banks of the Amazon, 
and others were erected near by for his servants. 
The overseer's cabin was screened so as to protect 
him from the mosquitoes. Around this little cabin, 
the Indians gathered to barter monkey meat or 
turtle eggs for his cheap stuff. Some of them 

231 



would be employed in gathering the milk from the 
rubber trees. The question of food was always 
troublesome. Much of it had to be obtained from 
the forest. The natives could live very well with- 
out imported food, hence they were valuable to 
the overseer. In some parts of the valley a tall 
slender tree known as the "cow tree" was found. 
When the trunk of this tree was. pierced, it gave 
forth a rich, nourishing juice resembling milk in 
appearance, taste, and quality. After standing a 
short time, the milk furnished a yellow cream, which 
gradually thickened until it looked like cheese. 
The negroes and Indians drank freely of this 
"milk," but the white people rarely cared for it. 
In addition to the "milk," the forest furnished wild 
game, nuts, manioc, bananas, and other things. 
But white men required other food that had to be 
brought from the outside world. 

One morning the Indians and negroes on the 
seringal had been out only a short time when the 
Indians sent up a distressing cry. "Onca! Onca!" 
was what they called. A huge black jaguar had 
been seen crouching in the forest, watching the men. 
The beast had smelled the meat from the cabin and 
had come to get it. The jaguar is the most danger- 
ous animal in the forest, and the Indians have a 
superstitious "fear of it. Consequently, they fled in 
every direction and were not seen again that day. 
The first night and a second passed without incident. 

232 




Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 

A "Ball" of Rubber 



The third night, as the overseer lay asleep, he 
felt the cabin shake as if an earthquake rocked it. 
He sat up immediately and saw the flaming eyes 
of a beast that stood in the door-way. His gun 
was on the other side of his cabin and no help was 
near. An ax was lying by the bed. He quietly 
drew it to him, keeping his eye on the beast and 
one hand on his hunting knife, which was never 
far from him. Then he waited for the animal to 
draw nearer before attacking it. 

The jaguar kept sniffing and stealthily moving 
closer. The man raised the ax cautiously and sud- 
denly stove in the beast's head. The jaguar made 

233 



a convulsive leap. For a time no one could have 
told which was on top — man or animal. The over- 
seer drew his hunting knife, and they rolled to- 
gether out of the door and fell on the ground. 
When the beast struck the earth, its muscles re- 
laxed and the man knew that it was dead. 

Next day it was told throughout the forest to 
every Indian that the overseer had killed an "onca" 
with his own hands. The Indians all believed that 
this was the supreme test of strength and courage. 
They thought the overseer greatly superior to 
ordinary human beings and that he even possessed 
supernatural powers. They were now ready to 
obey him in everything. Thereafter, he had little 
difficulty in securing sufficient labor. He had won 
the respect of the natives. 

Traders along the river while gathering rubber 
usually employ the Indians also to gather the 
Brazilian nut, which is to be found in abundance in 
the forests. This is one of the most valuable of nuts 
and one with which all children in North America 
are acquainted. It grows on very tall trees and is 
contained in a shell about the size of a cocoanut. 
One large shell contains from sixteen to eighteen 
nuts. It is dangerous to be under a tree when the 
nuts are ripening. As the wind shakes the branches, 
the heavy globes crash down through the leaves 
and limbs with almost the swiftness of a cannon 
ball and with force enough to kill a man. After 

234 



the nuts have been gathered, the outer shell is 
crushed with an ax or some other heavy instrument 
and from sixteen to eighteen black triangular nuts 
fall out. These are shipped to all parts of the 
world. 

But the harvesting of nuts is a side-line as a rule. 
The chief concern is the gathering of rubber. Some 
men in the Amazon valley have fifty seringal es- 
tates, running into millions of acres, and several 
steamboats trading from the numerous depots to 
Manaos or some other of the river cities. Workers 
are now carefully instructed in the latest method 
of tapping and collecting milk so as to preserve the 
trees. 

Manaos has grown into a large city as a result 
of rubber and other products of the Brazilian for- 
ests. Around it great cattle ranches have devel- 
oped. Cocoa and sugar-cane planting are impor- 
tant industries also. Whenever the valley is de- 
veloped, Manaos will perhaps become the Chicago 
of this western country. One may go up the Rio 
Negro by boat and enter the Orinoco and thence 
reach the ocean. Moreover, he may go up the 
Madeira and pass into the Rio de la Plata. Ma- 
naos has an immense unworked country to draw 
from. 

It is no longer easy to secure a comfortable living 
by milking rubber trees, although this is still a 
great industry and will so continue. The country 

235 



is developing slowly, and it is being demonstrated 
that other products of the soil of the valley are as 
valuable as the "lazy man's tree." But before the 
greatest possibilities can be attained it is necessary 
for settlers to learn how to destroy the mosquitoes 
and the other multitudinous pests, in order that life 
may be more secure and more comfortable. The 
problem of the tropics is the problem of insects. 




Courtesy of the Pan-American Union 

Rubber "Balls" Ready for Loading 



236 



CHAPTER XVIII 

BRAZIL OF TODAY 

While the people of South America have been 
slow to bring the interior of the continent under 
subjugation, as has been long since done in North 
America, they have built great cities along the sea- 
coast rivaling those of Europe and North America. 
They have developed the coastal country, erected 
schools, built railroads, cultivated the land, and 
established stable governments. All this shows 
what may be done in South America. But even 
yet there is enough land uncultivated and enough 
natural resources untouched to support the entire 
population of Europe and America. The climate 
is such in a continent that extends from the Equator 
to the Antarctic Ocean as to afford any temperature 
desired. The land is fertile ; the forests have been 
barely touched, and the mineral resources are un- 
surpassed. 

What has been said of South America as a whole 
is particularly true of Brazil. The population of 
Brazil barely equals that of New York, New Jer- 
sey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, although its 
area is larger than that of the entire United States. 

237 



Suppose the inhabitants of the four above-men- 
tioned states were spread unequally over the whole 
United States, with a rather dense population along 
the coast. This will give the reader some idea as to 
the distribution of people in Brazil. 

The southern states of Brazil, including Rid de 
Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catharina, and 
Rio Grande do Sul, which are farthest from the 
equator, have the best climate. In the extreme 
south frost and snow appear. There also the white 
races predominate because these southern states 
have been settled chiefly by Europeans. Their 
civilization, therefore, is farther advanced than that 
of the northern states. 

In the central and northern portions of Brazil 
the mixed races predominate. Negroes are to be 
found in far larger numbers than white inhabitants. 
At one time, generations ago, the negroes set up a 
small state of their own near Pernambuco and 
maintained it for over half a century. They were 
finally conquered and enslaved. The hinterland, 
or interior, in the northern states is still inhabited 
by a backward type of people. They have few 
educational advantages and lead a life of adventure 
that has tended to perpetuate the clannishness of a 
primitive race. 

On the other hand, the strip along the coast has 
been built up, and large cities, with fine harbors 
and an extensive commerce, have been developed. 

238 



Much of the back country is still in a state of 
nature, especially that which lies near Pernambuco 
and Natal. The country is mountainous in some 
parts, and few railroads have been built. This 
makes it impossible to travel with ease and rapidity. 
It is difficult for people to overcome primitive con- 
ditions when they cannot communicate with the out- 
side world. 

Students of United States history may recall 
that one hundred years ago, before the railroads 
connected the Atlantic seaboard with the Missis- 
sippi valley, the principal method by which settlers 
in the valley traded with the cities along the coast 
was by riding horseback across the mountains car- 
rying their produce or by driving hogs and cattle on 
foot. The old highway from Baltimore to Pitts- 
burgh was famous. At first long lines of pack- 
horses came over it; and then a wagon road was 
built, along which caravans traveled, keeping up the 
commerce between the coast and the Mississippi 
valley. In similar manner, the inhabitants in this 
Brazilian back country today communicate with 
the commercial cities along the coast. 

Visitors in Pernambuco or Natal see a long line 
of caravans, divided into four or five groups of 
fifty or one hundred mules or horses each, passing 
through the streets on their way to the big ware- 
houses. On each horse or mule are two large pack- 
ages containing cotton or other produce. Along- 

239 



side the pack-animals rides a rough-looking, 
swarthy Brazilian of the lower order, shouting at 
his mules and whipping them up. The mules carry 
bells that tinkle as they proceed. The shouts of 
the drivers and •the ringing of the bells create much 
confusion in the narrow streets. When the cara- 
vans come from the interior, their drivers, like the 
cowboys of the western United States a generation 
ago, are heavily armed for protection against the 
highway robbers who lurk in the mountains. 
Schoolboys in the United States like to read of the 
great stage-coach robberies of a half century ago 
in the Far West. These scenes are repeated in 
Brazil today wherever railroads have not opened 
the country. 

The population of this section of Brazil consists 
largely of negroes, Indians, and half breeds. Many 
of the inhabitants are very ignorant and supersti- 
tious and wear few clothes. In fact, they go half 
naked all the year. In Amazonas, which embraces 
a large part of the valley of the upper Amazon, the 
Indians are numerous. Many Indians of the valley 
have become civilized and have adopted European 
customs. A traveler a few years ago passing along 
the river heard a graphophone in an Indian hut, 
hidden by trees, playing "Suwannee River." Many 
prosperous towns have taken the place of forts and 
trading-posts, and Indian belles may be seen in the 
streets attired in the styles of Paris or New York. 

240 



The western part of Brazil is undeveloped. Much 
of it is still unexplored. Along the Amazon and 
some of its tributaries great plantations are found, 
here and there, on which almost every variety of 
food and fiber that the soil yields is produced. This 
promises to become a cotton country, and travelers 
predict that it will be the center of a vast produc- 
tion in the future. Cotton plantations and ranches, 
with attractive homes lighted by electricity, may be 
seen where a few years ago the forests yielded only 
quantities of rubber. In many places the farmers 
do not even have to replant the cotton every year, 
as in America. They simply cut it down, and it 
sprouts out anew the next spring. So fertile is the 
soil of the Amazon valley that, it is said, for every 
bushel of maize, rice or beans planted eight hundred 
bushels are harvested. Cacao, from which cocoa 
and chocolate are derived, is one of the oldest prod- 
ucts of the valley, and people are cultivating it on 
'an extensive scale. North America and Europe 
derive the greater part of their cocoa and chocolate 
from Brazil and Ecuador. 

The large plateau north of the Amazon, known 
as Brazilian Guiana, is to a great extent a stony 
desert. But in some parts it is well-forested or has 
broad areas of grassy plains. To the south of the 
Amazon, in the interior but far removed from the 
coast, is another large semi-arid plateau that yet has 
some resources. 

241 



The heat on the coast is not more oppressive than 
it is in the mid-summer months in certain parts of 
the United States. The evenings, as a rule, are 
delightful. Travelers say that they suffer more 
from cold than from heat, because the houses, as a 
rule, have no stoves or fire-places, except in the 
south and in the higher altitudes. The summer 
temperature at Rio de Janeiro averages 75 degrees 
and the winter temperature 65 degrees. 

Santarem is a great industrial center and Para 
a prosperous city of over 100,000 population. Far 
back of these cities are areas of forest containing 
a variety of nut-bearing trees, but only a small per- 
centage of their products can be saved. This is, 
perhaps, the greatest timber country on earth. The 
forests of the Amazon valley have hardly been 
touched. They can supply the entire world with 
lumber for a long period of time. 

British, Italian, French, German, Scandinavian, 
and North American explorers have been making 
extensive investigations since the European war, 
and it is believed by many that the Amazon valley 
is on the eve of a great industrial activity. All 
signs point to a prosperity such as it has never 
before known. 

Rio de Janeiro* the capital of Brazil, is one of the 
most beautiful cities in the world. The Brazilians 
have a legend that the Creator sought to make 
an ideal location for a great city, and when he com- 

242 




Rio de Jaxeiro 



pleted the bay of Rio de Janeiro, he was so well 
pleased with his work that he erected a monument to 
mark the place. This is a granite peak, 2,200 feet 
high, known as "Sugar Loaf," which rises almost 
perpendicularly near the entrance to the harbor. 

The development of Rio de Janeiro was hindered 
for a century or more by the deadly plague of yellow 
fever. When the United States took charge of 
Cuba in 1898, after the Spanish- American War, 
Havana, like Rio de Janeiro, was frequently visited 
by the deadly plague. However, the wonderful 
results of General Gorgas's methods soon became 
known throughout the world. They were applied 
in the United States, in Panama, and in Central 
and South America. 

243 



One of the most notable and effective applications 
of General Gorgas's methods was in Rio de Janeiro. 
The president of Brazil appointed a commission 
of engineers and medical experts. The government 
appropriated large sums of money: over $100,- 
000,000 was spent. The streets were widened. 
Beautiful avenues were opened. The water was 
made pure and wholesome, and today there are no 
flies or mosquitoes in Bio de Janeiro. If anyone 
sees a fly or mosquito, he must report it at once to 
health officials, who send a man immediately to 
destroy its breeding-place. The people, as a, rule, 
do not use mosquito screens in their homes. They 
have no need for them any more. It seems almost 
impossible that this city, once the lurking place of 
tropical fevers, should be so scrupulously clean and 
healthy; hut it is true. These diseases have disap- 
peared, and the mortality rate is one of the lowest 
in the world. 

The city has many new marble buildings. One 
of these is Monroe Palace, erected as a testimony 
of the regard of the nation for the Monroe Doc- 
trine. Parks have been laid off, made beautiful 
with birds and flowers and palms, and the streets 
are so well cared for that a torn-up pavement is a 
rarity. Other cities of Brazil have followed the 
example of Bio de Janeiro: Santos and Sao Paulo 
in the state of Sao Paulo have been made over. 
Bavines have been transformed into handsome 

244 



boulevards. Pest-holes have been turned into 
parks; magnificent hotels for tourists have been 
erected; and through Santos thousands of immi- 
grants pass almost daily on their way to the interior 
to seek land or to hunt the gold and silver that 
abound in the mountains. Other cities along the 
coast are under process of reconstruction. Facto- 
ries are being built, and magnificent buildings of 
architectural beauty are springing up like Aladdin 
palaces. 

The greatest cattle ranches in the world are in 
Matto Grosso. This is one of the largest states in 
Brazil and lies far from the seacoast. For this 
reason it is very thinly populated. Santa Cath- 
arina, in the southeastern part of the republic, was 
settled by Germans and is almost a German colony. 
Its capital, Florianopolis, is one of the prettiest 
spots in all Brazil, and has been described as a 
"garden of beauty." 

Immigrants continue to flow into Brazil in large 
numbers. For many years the Portuguese outnum- 
bered all others, but since the abolition of slavery 
the Italians have been more numerous. The white 
races of southern Brazil engage in industry, and 
the large cities have manufacturing plants of cot- 
ton, wool, cigars, cigarettes, boots, and shoes. 

The educational system in the south is good. 
Children attend the public schools, as a rule. Bra- 
zilians love art, music, and literature, and the 

245 



schools are well provided for. But in the northern 
and western states, where the dark races predom- 
inate, the schools are poor and there is much illit- 
eracy. Speaking generally, an educated Brazilian 
can use two or more languages; for the young 
people in the schools and colleges are taught not 
only to read foreign languages but to speak them. 
How does this compare with the training of college 
men and women of the United States? 

The Brazilian is generous and kind-hearted and 
very loyal to his friends. He is intensely patriotic : 
Brazil is the dearest land in the world to him. He 
is ambitious for his boys to have the best education 
possible. As a result, the wealthier people send 
their sons to European or North American univer- 
sities. However, they are not so ambitious for their 
girls, and in the education of its women, Brazil has 
not kept pace with North America or Europe. 
Yet the women are eager to learn; and of recent 
years they have been given more liberties, and their 
opportunities are broadening. A quarter century 
ago the women did not appear in the presence of 
strangers in the homes. But when President 
Roosevelt visited the country this custom had 
changed, and women sat at table with him and 
mingled freely with the guests. 

Most people of the United States have a notion 
that Brazil, because it lies partly within the tropics, 
is uninhabitable except for savages and inferior 

246 



races. This is a great mistake. It is not a land of 
dark, swampy forests, where the air is laden with 
deadly fevers and the dense tropical growth and 
noisome streams are infested by crawling reptiles, 
prowling beasts, and treacherous alligators, as 
North Americans think. It is very different in 
fact. The people of the United States know so 
little of this wonderful country that they have im- 
agined much that is not true. 

Many Europeans still think that the United 
States is a dangerous country in which to live. Wild 
stories have led them to imagine that even New 
York and Boston are in peril from Indian raids, 
that grizzly bears eat children for breakfast, and 
that negro babies in our Southland are fed to alli- 
gators by way of amusement. 

These stories are, of course, untrue, and their 
prevalence is due to a lack of interest which people 
of one nation usually show for people of other 
nations. North America should study the coun- 
tries of South America, in order to learn of the 
blossoming civilization to the south of us. When 
nations understand one another, as a rule they be- 
come friendly. North and South America have 
every reason to be the best of friends. 



247 



CHAPTER XIX 

OTHER REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA 

The story of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile has 
been presented somewhat in detail. An account 
of South America would not be complete, however, 
without a view of those other nations, Venezuela, 
Colombia, Ecuador, 'and Bolivia, whose destinies 
were shaped so largely by that great patriot, Simon 
Bolivar; and of the two southern nations of Uru- 
guay and Paraguay. 

The United States of Venezuela, as it is called, 
occupies a prominent place in the history of South 
America. Caracas, its capital, must be regarded as 
the cradle of South American independence, since 
it is the birthplace of Francisco Miranda and Simon 
Bolivar. The people of Venezuela are proud of 
this distinction. As an evidence of it, in the streets 
of Caracas may be seen two fine statues: one of 
George Washington, the Liberator of North Amer- 
ica; the other of Simon Bolivar, the Liberator of 
South America. 

Venezuela includes twenty- two states and a fed- 
eral district. The government of each state is 
somewhat similar to that of the states of the Amer- 

248 



ican Union, thus showing again what effect the 
example of the United States has had on the organ- 
ization of the South American republics. 

Caracas is a city of about 100,000 population, 
with many attractive buildings and streets. It is 
situated in a beautiful valley surrounded by lofty 
mountains. Its elevation, about 3,000 feet, is so 
great that, though it lies within the tropics not far 
from the equator, the climate is delightful. The 
beauty of the landscape is unsurpassed by that of 
any capital in the western hemisphere. Since the 
world has learned the cause of malaria and how 
to destroy the mosquito and since the opening 
of the Panama Canal, Caracas and Venezuela 
in general are becoming not only healthful but 
prosperous. 

Like most of the other republics of the continent, 
Venezuela's most important industries are agricul- 
ture and cattle-raising. It is also famous for its 
minerals, especially asphalt. The value of asphalt 
is well known in the United States. It has many 
uses in our daily lives, and is known by several 
names — asphalt, asphaltum, bitumen, maltha, min- 
eral pitch. The chief sources of this mineral in the 
western hemisphere are Venezuela, Cuba, and the 
island of Trinidad. In the Orient, it is found on 
the shores of the Dead Sea and in other places in 
Asia. It is said that bitumen was used to cement 
the stones of the Tower of Babel, that early east- 

249 




Llama Ore-carriers 



ern navigators calked their vessels with it, that the 
ancient Egyptians preserved their illustrious dead 
with it and used it in building the pyramids. It is 
extensively employed in every civilized country 
today in erecting large buildings, in street paving, 
and in a variety of other ways. Thus, Venezuelan 
bitumen is used to protect the tunnels of the New 
York subway from moisture. 

The "pitch lake" of Trinidad is one of the won- 
ders of the world. This is a lake of pure asphalt 
about a mile and a half wide. It has been mined 
for years, but as fast as the viscous substance is 
removed the lake fills up again, and apparently the 
supply is as inexhaustible as when it was first dis- 

250 



covered. The asphalt of Venezuela is equally as 
valuable and is found in even larger quantities ; and 
as the country develops great prosperity will spring 
from it, as there is a growing demand for the ma- 
terial in the United States. 

Venezuela has made remarkable progress in re- 
cent years. The government has become more 
stable since revolutions are no longer annual events. 
Venezuela has established a system of public 
schools, colleges, and universities, and the popu- 
lation, although composed of a mixture of races, 
is gradually learning the ways of self-government. 
It has a promising future. 

The country that should profit most from the 
Panama Canal is Colombia. Until Panama re- 
volted and set up an independent government, the 
zone through which the canal passes was Colombian 
territory. It is believed by the people of that re- 
public that the United States aided Panama to 
achieve its independence in order to secure the strip 
of land through which to cut the canal. Conse- 
quently, Colombia is still not well disposed toward 
the United States. However, the development of 
the latter country will probably come as a direct 
result of the digging of the canal, and so its hos- 
tility will vanish. 

Colombia, unlike the neighboring republics, is 
not composed of a federation of states. It has a 
centralized form of government, established in its 

251 



present form in 1831 after the death of Simon 
Bolivar. It is largely undeveloped, having an area 
of nearly 500,000 square miles, which is about equal 
to that of the United States south of the Potomac 
and east of the Mississippi River. Its capital, Bo- 
gota, has a population of 150,000, and is situated 
on a high plateau at an elevation of nearly 9000 
feet. The coast, or hot region, produces tropical 
fruits, plants, and wood, while the uplands yield 
many of the staple products of the temperate zone. 
Colombia has rich deposits of minerals, such as 
gold, copper, platinum, and coal. It leads the 
world in the production of emeralds, one of the most 
valuable of precious stones. 

South of Colombia is Ecuador, so named because 
it lies on the equator. It was Simon Bolivar's 
dream to annex Ecuador to Colombia. Although 
he succeeded temporarily, immediately after his 
death it became an independent nation. Ecuador 
is one of the smaller republics, being about the size 
of Virginia and North Carolina, with a population 
about half that of North Carolina. Its capital 
is Quito, which has a population of 75,000. The 
largest city, Guayaquil, has 85,000 inhabitants. 
It was here that Simon Bolivar and San Martin 
met to decide the destiny of South America a hun- 
dred years ago. For generations Guayaquil was 
a pest-hole of yellow fever and other plagues, but 
now that yellow fever is on the road to extirpation 

252 



Guayaquil will probably become one of the great 
ports of the Pacific. 

The treasure of Ecuador consists in the groves 
of cacao trees, from which cocoa and chocolate are 
derived. This country largely supplies the world 
with these products. The cacao tree was originally 
a wild evergreen growing from twenty to forty 
feet high. It has become so valuable, however, 
that it is now carefully cultivated, and the cacao 
groves are to Ecuador what the coffee plantations 
are to southern Brazil. 

Chocolate and cocoa, used in so many ways, are 
derived from a cucumber- shaped pod, five to ten 
inches long, three to four inches thick and contain- 
ing a number of seeds that resemble an almond in 
size and shape. The pods are cut from the trees 
and cured for a few days. The flavor of the choc- 
olate depends upon the degree of skill with which 
the seeds are cured when they are being prepared 
for commercial use. "Cocoa butter" is a fat de- 
rived from the bean. It forms the basis of toilet 
pastes and pomades. 

Ecuador is also famous for the fine straw hats 
its produces. These are the so-called "Panama" 
hats. The raw material comes from a shrub from 
six to ten feet high, resembling the saw palmetto. 
The fan-shaped leaves are cut from the trees and 
stripped of their outer filaments, dipped into vats 
of boiling water, and hung up in the shade to dry. 

253 



A day or two later the leaves are put in the sun 
to bleach. Lemon juice is added to the hot water 
bath to complete the whitening process. A skill- 
ful weaver will complete one hat in five or six 
months, working only in the late twilight or early 
dawn. This, of course, is true of the best grade of 
hats, not the cheaper. Some of the best hats sell 
for as much as $100 apiece. They are so pliant 
and flexible that they can be folded and carried 
in the pocket without injury. One woven for the 
Prince of Wales was so fine that it could be folded 
into a package no larger than a watch. The natives 
have achieved a world-wide fame for their skill in 
making these hats, and so valuable is the trade that 
schools have been established to teach the art of 
hat-weaving. 

Bolivia is the third largest republic in South 
America. Through the instrumentality of Simon 
Bolivar, it was separated from Peru and made into 
an independent nation. It is so far removed from 
the coast and so shut in by mountains that it has 
not kept pace with the more progressive republics. 
Notwithanding that it has an area almost as great 
as that part of the United States east of the Mis- 
sissippi, it has only about 3,000,000 inhabitants, a 
little more than the population of Virginia. Its 
capital, La Paz, has 110,000 people. So moun- 
tainous is this republic that its largest cities are 
located on plateaus of an average altitude of 12,000 

254 




Courtesy 01 the Pan-American C 



Reed Boats on Lake Titicaca 



feet above sea-level. Here, also, is found the high- 
est navigated lake in the world, Lake Titicaca. Its 
banks were the scene of a very ancient civilization. 
The ruins of palaces and temples may be seen today 
by travelers. 

Bolivia is chiefly noted for minerals. Its gold 
and silver mines have been famous since the days 
of Pizarro. Its rubber industry is also valuable. 
The soil on the plains and in the valleys is very 
fertile, and recently the government established 
agricultural schools to encourage farming and the 

255 



stock industry, since cattle, sheep, and llamas 
abound in the country. 

Two other nations remain to be mentioned — 
Uruguay and Paraguay. For many years after the 
colonies won their independence from Spain and 
Portugal, it was a question whether or not these 
two countries would be able to maintain their sepa- 
rate existence. They lie between Brazil and Ar- 
gentine, and both of those large nations desired to 
annex them. In consequence, war was chronic. 
However, Uruguay and Paraguay have success- 
fully maintained their independence, and nowadays 
they are, like the other republics, making great 
progress. 

Both Uruguay and Paraguay are rich in agri- 
cultural resources, and their stock industry is at- 
tracting the attention of the markets of the world. 
Moreover, the cities of the two countries are turn- 
ing to manufacturing on a large scale. 

Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, has a popu- 
lation of 400,000 and is one of the principal sea- 
ports on the Atlantic. Asuncion, situated on the 
Paraguay River, is the capital of Paraguay. It is 
one of the largest inland cities in South America, 
with a population of 100,000. 

In studying the South American republics, cer- 
tain features stand out prominently. In the first 
place, the population is composed of many races 
differing much in color, blood, and customs. As 

256 



a rule, the aristocracy is composed of one race and 
the middle class of another, while the lowest classes 
belong to a third race, or to a mixture of races. 
This mingling of races produces a condition of 
affairs difficult for Europeans and North Amer- 
icans to understand. 

In the second place, the South American repub- 
lics have built large cities near the coast, while the 
interior has been little developed. This also has its 
effect on population. Few travelers know any- 
thing of this back country; the civilization of the 
cities of South America is much better understood. 
The primitive condition of the natives, both in the 
cities and in the back country, is a serious handicap. 
However, this undeveloped continent and its un- 
exhausted resources offer immense opportunities 
to the people who have the skill and courage to take 
possession. No region in the world possesses finer 
agricultural lands, which are almost always the 
basis of a great development, and no continent on 
earth equals South America in mineral resources. 

Travelers who have studied the progress of that 
continent and have reached a fair understanding 
of its tremendous possibilities declare that it is 
destined to become "The Future Land of Promise,' 1 
for the following reasons: 

(1) Its soil and climate make it habitable from 
the equator to the southern extremity; (2) its un- 
used resources are the greatest of any part of the 

257 



world and afford opportunities for every variety 
of adventure and heroic enterprise; (3) it is form- 
ing stable governments under which immigrants 
find opportunities to grow and develop and secure 
the blessings of liberty for themselves and their 
posterity; and (4) only the coastal regions and 
comparatively small parts of the interior have been 
touched, leaving the greater part of the continent 
still to be settled and developed. 

With the establishment of good school systems, 
the application of modern knowledge of sanitation 
and health preservation, the wise use of natural 
resources, and an understanding of self-govern- 
ment, South America will become "the land of 
promise," one of the most magnificent regions in 
the world. 



258 



CHAPTER XX 

PAN-AMERICAN UNION 

Before the World War, North Americans gave 
little thought to the tremendous resources of South 
America and showed little interest in the growing 
civilization of even its leading republics. But since 
the war the industrial leaders of North America 
are turning their attention to South America as 
never before. Its raw material and its products 
are greatly needed today to help rebuild war- 
stricken Europe and to replenish the world's stock 
of necessary supplies. 

Farseeing statesmen of the United States for 
many years have realized the necessity of forming 
a closer union of North America and South Amer- 
ica. The famous Monroe Doctrine, announced by 
President Monroe in 1823, had as its chief purpose 
the protection of the South American republics, 
then righting for freedom ; and for a century it has 
preserved the independence of these countries. 
However, the Monroe Doctrine was not proclaimed 
so much in the interest of South American repub- 
lics as to prevent European nations from securing 
new territory in the western hemisphere and thereby 

259 



endangering the liberties of the United States. 
Thus, the people of the United States have had 
little direct interest in South America. 

It will be recalled that Simon Bolivar, while fight- 
ing for the independence of South America, pro- 
posed a union of all the republics in the western 
hemisphere. But the United States held off and 
would take no part in the conference called at 
Panama. The people of the United States differed 
racially from those of South America. They spoke 
a different language. They had different manners 
and customs. They had sufficient resources with- 
out developing large trade relations with South 
America. It was not until after the middle of the 
nineteenth century that the rubber of Brazil, the 
nitrates of Chile, and the guano of Peru were de- 
manded in any considerable quantities by the people 
of the United States. As there was no need for 
many of the products of South America, small com- 
merce or intercourse between the continents devel- 
oped. The South American republics, conse- 
quently, were left to themselves, while both con- 
tinents alike developed a great commerce with Eu- 
rope. Thus South America learned to look to 
Europe for aid and comfort instead of to the 
United States. 

Little was done by the United States to form a 
closer union with the South American republics 
until President Cleveland's first administration. 

260 



In 1888, Grover Cleveland, in accordance with a 
measure of Congress, invited the Latin- American 
republics to join the United States in a conference 
to be held in Washington in 1889 to consider means 
to preserve the peace and promote the prosperity 
and well-being of both continents. As a result of 
this invitation, the first Pan-American conference 
met in Washington on October 2, 1889. Seven- 
teen republics, including the United States, sent 
representatives. The chief result of this meeting 
was the establishment in Washington of an Inter- 
national Bureau of American Republics for the 
collection and publication of information relating 
to the commerce, products, laws, and customs of 
the countries represented. 

The Latin-American republics, however, were 
suspicious of the United States, because the latter 
had not always appeared friendly. Not all of the 
nations would attend the first conference. This sus- 
picion was partly allayed by the Spanish- American 
war, when the United States freed Cuba, the last 
of the Spanish colonies in the western hemisphere, 
without asking anything in return. Such an act 
as this had never before been recorded by history. 
Soon afterward, 1901, President McKinley was 
instrumental in having the second Pan-American 
congress called in Mexico. This was much more 
successful. The third congress met in Rio de Jan- 
eiro in 1906. This was followed by a fourth con- 

261 



gress, which met in Buenos Aires in 1910. As a 
result of these congresses, the leading republics of 
South America were not only growing more 
friendly to the United States but were becoming 
factors in world politics. 

The three most progressive nations of South 
America are Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. For 
many years these countries have been free from 
internal wars and have demonstrated to the outside 
world that they are developing strong governments 
and a civilization that merits the respect of the most 
progressive nations of the world. They were es- 
pecially concerned in 1914 over the possible effect 
of the Mexican revolution on the United States. 
The Mexicans, being descendants of the Spanish 
conquerors, are kinsmen of the South Americans. 
The United States had once made war on Mexico 
and had taken a part of its territory. Most people 
in the United States, in 1914, thought that the 
country would go to war again with Mexico. The 
South American republics were greatly concerned 
over the Mexican situation and were exceedingly 
anxious that the United States should not fight 
their kinsmen, the Mexicans. Consequently, when 
the United States ordered its fleet to Vera Cruz 
and war seemed inevitable, the diplomatic repre- 
sentatives at Washington of Argentina, Brazil, 
and Chile made a formal offer in behalf of their 
governments to bring about a peaceful and friendly 

262 



settlement of the controversy between Mexico and 
the United States. This occurred on April 25, 
1914, when no one was dreaming of the World 
War, only three months before all Europe was 
plunged into the most terrible conflict in history. 

President Wilson at the beginning of his admin- 
istration, in speaking of the relations of the country 
to the Latin- American republics, declared, "We 
must show ourselves as friends by comprehending 
their interests, whether it squares with our own or 
not." Then he added, "I want to take this occa- 
sion to say that the United States will never again 
seek one additional foot of territory by conquest." 
These expressions of friendship and of assurance 
that the United States would make no war of con- 
quest gave the Southern republics hope of a suc- 
cessful issue to the controversy. When the repre- 
sentatives of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile offered 
their services to help settle the difficulty between 
Mexico and the United States, President Wilson 
at once accepted their offer. 

These three countries were referred t& as the "A, 
B, C nations" (A, B, C being the initial letters in 
their names ) . Many newspapers which had been 
urging President Wilson to declare war on Mexico 
were inclined to resent this intervention and used 
the term "A, B, C nations" as a term of reproach. 
They even sneered at the proffered services of the 
A, B, C, and abused the president for accepting 

263 



them. This is an evidence that some of the larger 
newspapers of the United States did not really 
appreciate the importance of South America in the 
politics of the world. 

However, on May 20, 1914, the A, B, C medi- 
ators began their conference at Niagara Falls, and 
on July 1 they had completed their work. So fair 
was the report that both Mexico and the United 
States have followed it almos+ in detail., This 
diplomatic masterpiece gave North Americans a 
different impression of South Americans, for a new 
record had been made in American diplomacy. 
Thus, for the first time in history, South American 
republics in council helped to decide an issue for 
North America and marked out lines along which 
the United States might proceed with profit to all 
concerned. 

This is one splendid result of the Pan-American 
congress. Another result is the formation of the 
Pan-American Union, which is an international 
organization embracing all the republics of the 
western hemisphere, being composed of twenty-one 
nations, as follows: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, 
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Re- 
public, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, 
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, 
San Salvador, the United States, Uraguay, and 
Venezuela. The Union headquarters are in a beau- 
tiful building in Washington, D. C, erected by the 

265 



munificence of Andrew Carnegie and contributions 
of the American republics. 

The governing board consists of the Secretary 
of State of the United States and the diplomatic 
representatives in Washington of the other Amer- 
ican governments. These elect a Director-General, 
an Assistant-Director, and such international ex- 
perts, clerks, and stenographers as may be needed. 
The Union has a library of about 40,000 volumes 
for the use of all who desire to become better ac- 
quainted with the Latin- American republics. It 
also keeps an exhibition of specimens of South 
American resources, including birds of gorgeous 
plumage, palms, minerals, and many other things 
that are exceedingly interesting to visitors. In ad- 
dition to this, it publishes in English, Spanish, and 
Portuguese The Pan-American Bulletin, a monthly 
magazine devoted to recording Pan-American 
progress. 

The purpose of the Pan-American Union is to 
promote the development of commerce, friendly 
intercourse, good understanding, and aid the keep- 
ing of peace among these countries. The expenses 
of the organization are borne by contributions from 
each nation, based on population. 

Since the World War, North America has felt 
the need of a closer relationship with South Amer- 
ica. Before the war, the South American repub- 
lics looked almost entirely to Europe for their 

266 



commerce. In fact, goods exported to the United 
States and practically all communication with the 
United States passed through European ports. 
But the World War broke down old trade lines. 
The conditions in Europe are such that the old 
relations cannot continue as they were. Circum- 
stances have forced North America and South 
America to seek to understand one another in order 
that they may be mutually helpful. 

The opening of the Panama Canal, moreover, 
has made it much easier for New York and the 
other seaports of the Atlantic and those of the Gulf 
of Mexico to carry on commerce with the Pacific 
ports of South America than was formerly the 
case. The Pacific countries, which have been more 
or less backward, now have a quick communication 
with the Atlantic seaboard. 

North Americans are beginning to feel the need 
of a more accurate knowledge of the Southern 
republics — their geography, history, government, 
business enterprises, and natural resources. In con- 
sequence, Spanish is being widely introduced into 
our colleges and high schools; Spanish books are 
in demand; and the two continents are at last on 
the threshold of a mutual understanding and a 
mutual friendship. 



267 



INDEX 



A, B, C nations, 263, 265 

Abyssinia, 204 

agriculture, in Peru, 53; in Ar- 
gentina, 174; in Brazil, 184, 199, 
203, 206; in Ecuador, 253 

alligators, hunting of, 217 

Al-ma'gro, Diego de, 43, 68, 69 

alpaca, discovered by Spanish, 16, 
51 

Amazon River, 14, 17, 71, 211, 212, 
213, 216, 217, 218, 223, 225, 226, 
231, 240, 241 

Amazon valley, 216, 229, 235, 242 

Amazonas, 240 

Amazons, 16, 223 

America, gets its name, 15 

anaconda, 17, 218 

Andes Mountains, 1C, 80, 112, 140, 
150, 172, 175, 178, 180, 189, 223 

Antarctic Ocean, 237 

Argentina, 56, 70, 78, 80, 92, 103, 105, 
106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 118, 121, 
139, 142-144, 160, 161, 163, 164, 167, 
169-172, 174-177, 179-183, 196, 248, 
262, 263, 265 

Argentine Republic, 106, 169, 172 

Army of the Andes, 111 

asphalt, 249-251 

Asuncion, (a-soon-se-on'), 256 

Atahualpa (at-a-wal'pa), Inca of 
Peru, defeats his brother, 55; at 
Cajamarca, 58; sends message to 
Pizarro, 59; visits Pizarro, 60; 
captured, 62; studies writing, 63; 
murdered, 64; mother of, 131 

Ayacucho, (a-ya-koo'cho), battle of, 
140 

B 



Bahama Islands, 11 
Bahia (ba-e'a), 185 



Bal-bo'a, Vasco Nunez de, comes to 
America, 12; sails for Isthmus of 
Darien, 23; ruler of colony, 24; 
discovers Pacific Ocean, 25; death, 
27; alluded to, 29 

Belgrano, General, 109 

blow-gun, in Brazil, 220 

boa-constrictor, 215, 219 

Bo-go-ta', 123, 141, 142, 252 

Bolivar (bo-le'var), Simon, early life, 
120; joins Miranda, 121; hailed as 
the "Liberator," 122; suffers re- 
verses, 124; wins battle of Boyaca, 
127; wins battle of Carabobo, 128; 
meets San Martin, 134; enters 
Lima, 139; wins battle of Junin. 
140; calls congress of American re- 
publics, 141; death, 142; alluded 
to, 96, 102, 103, 119, 145, 153, 155, 

159, 191, 248, 252, 254 

Bolivia, 56, 70, 72, 80, 105, 141, 142, 

180, 248, 254, 255, 265 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 90, 93, 96, 97, 

108, 112, 146, 190 
Bo-ya-ca', battle of, 127 
Brazil, 14, 15, 20, 56, 90, 105, 170, 

184-194, 196, 197, 199, 200, 202, 

203, 206, 209, 210, 212, 213, 237, 

238, 240, 241, 244-246, 248, 260, 

262, 265 
Brazilian customs, marriage, 201 ; 

dress, 202, coffee-drinking, 202; 

seclusion of women, 202; funeral 

processions, 202 
Brazilian Guiana, 241 
Brazilian nut, 234 
Brazillian sugar cultivation, 16, 91 
brazilwood, 15 
buccaneers, 19, 20, 28, 30-32 
Buenos Aires (bwa'nos i'ras), 78-80, 

106, 107, 109, 113-117, 143, 146, 151, 

160, 164-168, 171, 175, 178-181, 262 



268 



Ca-bral', Pedro Alvarez, lands in 

Brazil, 14, 184 
ca-ca'o, 241, 253 

Cajamarca (ka-ha-mar'ka), 58, 63 
Callao (kal-ya'o), 115, 117 
cannibals, in Brazil, 220 
Cape Horn, 29 
Cape of Good Hope, 13 
Ca-ra-bo'bo, battle of, 128 
Caracas, (ka-ra'kas), 92-94, 96, 100, 

101, 120-123, 142, 248, 249 
Caracas, Captain-generalcy of, 80 
Caribbean Sea, 28, 30, 38 
Carnegie, Andrew, 266 
Car-re'ra, Jose Miguel, dictator of 

Chile, 147; hatred for O'Higgins, 

148; goes to San Martin, 150; 

death, 151; alluded to, 158 
Cartegena, 124 

Cha-ca-bu'co, battle of, 112, 115, 150 
Cha'gres River, 30, 31, 38 
Charles V., 40, 41, 48, 56, 65, 67, 81 
Chile, 55, 56, 71, 80, 92, 96, 104, 110, 

112, 113, 116, 117, 127, 142, 144-147, 

150-154, 156, 168, 170, 172, 174-176, 

180, 182, 183, 248, 260, 262, 265 
Chilian (chel-yan'), 146 
Chim-bo-ra'zo, 133 
Christ of the Andes, 178-180, 182 
Cinchona (sin-ko'na), Countess of, 72; 

healed by Peruvian bark, 72 
Cipango (Japan), 10 
Cleveland, Grover, 260, 261 
Cochrane, Sir A., 96, 115 
Cochrane, Lord, 115, 117, 119 
coffee, cultivation in Brazil, 203-206 
Colombia, 35, 71, 80, 91, 97, 123, 125, 

128, 129, 133, 139, 141, 142, 251, 

252, 265 
Colon, 34, 38 
Columbus, Christopher, 9-12, 20, 2], 

184, 223 
Cordoba (kor'do-va), 80, 182 
Cortez, Hernando, 12, 40, 43, 44, 43, 

59 
Costa Rica, 265 
Co-to-pax'i, 133 
cotton, 16, 53, 203, 216, 241 
cow-fish, 17 



Creole, 75, 107 
Cuba, 11, 13, 249, 261 
Cumbre ridge (koom'bra), 178 
Curacao (koo-ra-so'), 120, 121 
customs of Indians, in Brazil, 221 
Cuzco, 63, 65, 68, 80, 82 



Darien, Isthmus of, 12, 13, 23-26, 43 
Dav'il-a, Pedrarias, founds Panama, 

27 
De Soto, Fernando, 58 
diamonds, found in Brazil, 188 
Discoverie of Guiana, The, 83 
Dominican Republic, 265 
Drake, Sir Francis, 81 
Dutch Republic, 33, 81, 87, 88 

E 

earthquake, at Caracas, 100 
Ecuador (ek'-wa-dor), 46, 56, 71, 72, 

91, 129, 130, 139, 241, 248, 252, 253, 

265 
Edward VII., 177 
El Do-ra'do, 16, 82, 222 
England, 10, 33, 41, 81-83, 86-90, 95, 

96, 115, 119, 145, 169, 200 
es-tan'-ci-a, 160, 175 



fazenda (fa-zen'da), 185, 205 

Ferdinand, of Aragon, 40, 42 

fi-es'tas, 165 

Florianopolis, 245 

Florida, 95 

Fonseca (fon-sa'ka), Deodoro da, 

208-210 
Fountain of Youth, 16 
France, 10, 20, 33, 35, 88, 90, 95, 200 
Franklin, Benjamin, 94 
French Revolution, 145 



Gama, Vasco da, 11 

Ga-tun' Lake, 38 

gauchos (gou'chos), 160-166, 167 

Germany, 200 

Goethals (gu-talz'), Gen. George W., 

37 
Gorgas, Gen. William C, 37, 243 
guano, used first in Peru, 52 
Guatemala, 265 



269 



Guayaquil (gwi'a-kel), 130, 181, 133, 
134, 136, 252, 253 

Guayaquil, Gulf of, 46, 47, 49, 104, 
131 

Guiana (ge-a'na), 83, 84, 91 
H 

Haiti, 11, 14, 19-22, 27, 265 

hanging-gardens, of Peru, 51, 52 

Hispaniola (his-pan-yo'la), 11 

Holy Alliance, 139, 194 

Honduras, 265 

Huascar (was-kar'), 55 
I 

Inca, absolute ruler, 53 ; fish brought 
to, 54; palaces of, 55; visits Pi- 
zarro, 60; captured, 62; murdered, 
64; new Inca, 65, 67; mother of, 
131 

India, 10, 11, 13, 87, 91 

Isabella, of Castile, 40 
J 

Jackson, Andrew, 159 

jaguar, 217, 232-234 

Jamaica, 30, 33, 124 

James I., 83, 84, 87 

Jefferson, Thomas, 190 

John VI., of Portugal, 190-192 

Junin (hoo-nen'), battle of, 140 

L 
Lancasterian schools, 153 
La Paz, 80, 254 
Lima (le'ma), 68-72, 74, 78-80, 105, 

115, 117, 118, 137, 139, 140, 142 
llama, 17, 49, 50, 51, 63 
llaneros (lya-na'ros), 123 
London, 95, 121 
L'Ouverture, Toussaint (loo-ver-tur', 

tous-san'), 20 
Luque (look), Hernando de, 43 

M 
McKinley, William, 261 
Madeira (ma-de'ra), River, 212, 235 
Ma-gel 'Ian, 25 
Maipo (mi-poo'), battle of, 113, 128, 

151 
Ma-na'os, 213, 216, 218, 219, 235 
man'i-oc, legend of, 186 
Mann, Horace, 171 
Ma-no'a, 82-84 



Maranon (mar-a-nyon') River, 211 

Margarita, 123 

Matto Grosso (mat'oo gross'oo), 245 

Mediterranean Sea, 10 

Men-do'za, 110, 111, 144, 150, 182 

Mexico, 13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 40, 43, 44, 
59, 82, 183, 261-263, 265 

Mexico, Gulf of, 267 

mica, 85 

Minas Geraes (me'nash zha-rish'), 
188 

Miranda (me-ran'da), Francisco, 
early life of, 94; begins insurrec- 
tion, 96; makes second attempt at 
revolt, 97; tries to federate South 
America, 99; army of, destroyed, 
102; imprisonment and death, 103; 
alluded to, 106, 107, 121, 144, 145, 
191, 248 

Mitre (me-tra'), Bartolome, 171 

Monroe Doctrine, 139, 140, 194, 244, 
259 

Monroe, James, 139, 194, 259 

Monroe Palace, 244 

Mon-te-vid'e-o, 256 

Montezuma, 13, 16, 59 

Moors, conquer Spain, 10 

Morgan, Henry, 30, 33 

mosquitoes, killed, 37; 85, 217, 228, 
231, 236, 244 

N 

Na-tal', 239 

New Gran-a'da, 80, 97, 123, 125-129 

New Granada, viceroyalty of, 91, 
92, 129 

Nicaragua, 265 

O 

O'Higgins, Ambrose, 144, 145 

O'Higgins (o-e'gens), Bernardo, early 
life, 145; becomes a revolutionist, 
147; at battle of Rancagua, 149; 
becomes San Martin's lieutenant, 
150; his administration in Chile, 
152; gives Chile a constitution, 
154; abdicates, 155; death, 156; 
alluded to, 92, 96, 104, 111-113, 117, 
127, 137, 139, 158, 159, 191 

Orellana (o-rel-yan'a), explores Ama- 
zon, 223 

O-ri-no'co River, 82-84, 87, 235 



270 



Pacific Ocean, 12, 25, 29, 43, 70, 105 

pampas, 160, 161, 164, 166 

Panama, 13, 19, 20, 27-35, 38, 43-46, 
48, 57, 63, 68, 71, 141, 243, 265 

Panama Canal, 35, 37, 249, 251, 267 

Panama hats, 253 

Pan-American Bulletin, The, 266 

Pan-American congress, 143, 261 

Pan-American Union, 143, 265, 266 

Pa-ra', 213-216, 218, 242 

Paraguay (par'a-gwa), 70, 80, 105, 
107, 168, 248, 256, 265 

Paraguay River, 212, 256 

Par-a-na', 238 

Patos Pass, 112 

Pedro I., of Brazil, refuses to go to 
Portugal, 193; crowned emperor, 
194; abdicates, 195, 196 

Pedro II., of Brazil, left crown, 195; 
declared of age, 197; habits, 198; 
encourages coffee cultivation, 203; 
opposes slavery, 206; lets daughter 
direct affairs, 207; abdicates, 210; 
opens Amazon to trade, 228 

pe'on-age, 76 

Pernambuco (per-nam-boo'ko), 185, 
238, 239 

Peru, 13, 17, 19, 20, 24-27, 38, 39, 41, 
47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 57, 60, 67, 70, 71, 
' 74, 77-80, 91, 92, 105, 109, 110, 113, 
114, 116, 118, 119, 129-131, 137-142, 
145, 152, 153, 155, 187, 219, 223, 
254, 260, 265 

Peru, viceroyalty of, 71, 91, 92 

Peruvian bark, 73 

Philip II., 81 

Pinzon (pen-thon'), 14, 184 

Pi-zar'ro, Francisco, joins Balboa, 13, 
39; early life of, 41, 42; takes part 
in Balboa's expedition, 43; starts 
for Peru, 44; reaches Peru, 46: 
studies Peru, 49, 53-56; commands 
men to fire cannon, 57; decides to 
seize Atahualpa, 59; seizes Inca, 
62; murders Inca, 64; crowns new 
Inca, 67; kills Almagro, 68; death 
of, 69 ; founds Lima, 71 ; enslaves 
Indians, 75; finds pigs, 219; Orel- 
lana's commander, 223 



Pizarro, Gonzales, 131 

Pla'ta River, 14, 78, 91, 96; 105, 107, 

140, 212, 235 
Plata River, viceroyalty of, 91, 92, 

105 
Portugal, 9, 11, 13, 14-16, 19, 87, 90, 

184, 185, 188-190, 192-194, 196 
Potosi (po-to-see'), 80 
Prince Henry of Portugal, 10 
Princess Isabella, of Brazil, 207 



quinine, 73, 74 

Quito (ke'to), 55, 129, 131, 133, 252 



R 



Raleigh, Sir Walter, attempts colony 
in North Carolina, 82; sentenced 
to death, 83; sets sail for Orinoco, 
84; executed, 87, 224 

Rancagua (ran-kaw'gwa), battle of, 
149, 150 

Rimac River, 70 

Rio Branco, 222, 224 

Rio de Janeiro, 14, 90, 185, 191, 193, 
194, 198, 238, 242-244, 261 

Rio Grande do Sul, 238 

Rio Kermit, 212 

Rio Negro (Argentina), 174, 175 

Rio Negro (Brazil), 211, 213, 222, 224, 
235 

Rio Teodoro, 212 

River of Doubt, 212 

Ro'ca, Julio, 174-178 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 212, 246 

Ro-sa'ri-o, 182 

Ro'sas, Juan Manuel, early life, 160- 
164; organizes gauchos, 165; be- 
comes dictator, 167; overthrown, 
169; goes to England, 169 

rubber, in Brazil, 213, 216, 226; how 
extracted, 228; how prepared, 230; 
trade in, 260; in Bolivia, 255 



Salta, 80 

San Felipe (fa-le'pa), 101 

San Francisco, 183 



271 



San Jacinto (ja-sin'to), church of, 
101 

San Marcos, University of, 72 

San Martin (mar-tine'), Jose, early 
life, 107; returns from Spain, 108; 
atMendoza, 110; wins battle of Cha- 
cabuco, 112; plans to attack Span- 
iards in Peru, 115; enters Lima, 
117; made Protector of Peru, 118; 
appealed to by Guayaquil, 130; 
meets Bolivar, 134; resigns office, 
137; leaves South America, 138; 
last days and death, 142; alluded 
to, 92, 96, 103, 107, 120, 125, 127, 
129, 131, 143-145, 150, 151-153, 155, 
159, 167, 178, 191, 252 

San Martin, Juan de, 107 

San Salvador, 265 

San Sebastian, 23 

Santa Catharina, 238, 245 

Santarem (san-ta-ran'), 213, 242 

Santiago (san-te-a'go), 144, 154, 182 

Santo Domingo, founded, 12, 13, 20, 
21, 23, 125, 265 

Santos, 203, 213, 244, 245 

Sao Paulo, 193, 199, 203, 204, 238, 244 

Sarmiento (sar-myen'to), Domingo, 
171 

ser-in-gal', 225, 235 

snakes, in Brazil, 216 

Solimoes (so'le-moinsh) River, 211 

Southerners, come to Brazil, 199, 213 

Spain, 9-11, 13-16, 20, 28-30, 40-43, 47, 
48, 56, 67, 70, 72, 76, 78, 80, 81, 87, 
88, 90, 91, 94-97, 99, 103, 105-108, 
114, 115, 117, 120, 121, 127, 129, 137, 
139, 14Q, 144, 145, 151-153, 178, 188, 
190 

Spanish-American war, 261 

Spanish Armada, 81 

Spanish Main, 81 

Sucre' (Su-cray'), General, 140 

sugar cane, in Brazil, 184 



Trin-i-dad', 84, 86, 249, 250 
Trujillo (troo-hel'yo), 41, 42 
Tucuman (too'koo-man), 80, 109 
Tumbez, 46, 48, 49, 57, 58 
Turks, capture Constantinople, 10, 204 



U 



United Provinces of the Rio de la 
Plata, 105 

United States of America, 9, 19, 21, 
22, 34, 35, 73, 82, 89, 94-96, 99, 106, 
139, 142, 152, 154, 157, 158, 169, 171, 
177, 181, 182, 185, 187, 190, 198, 
199, 203, 208, 210, 237, 239, 240, 242, 
243, 246, 247, 249, 251, 252, 254, 
259-263, 265-267 

Uruguay (u'roo-gwa), 80, 105, 168, 
248, 256, 265 

Uspallata (oos-pal-yaw'ta) Pass, 178 



Valparaiso (val-pa-ra'so), 115-117, 

151, 152, 180, 183 
Venezuela (ven-e-zwe'la) , 71, 80, 91- 

97, 99, 103, 106, 120, 121, 123, 125, 

127, 128, 141, 146, 248, 249, 251, 265 
Venice, 93 
Vera Cruz, 262 
Vespucci (ves-poot'che), Amerigo, 14, 

15, 82, 83 
Villa Americana, 199-201, 203 



W 



Washington, George, 89, 94, 139, 248 
Waterloo, 90 

watermelon, cultivated in Brazil, 203 
Wilson, Woodrow, 263 



Titicaca (tit-e-kaw'ka), Lake, 55, 255 
Trans- Andean railway, 180 



yellow fever, at Panama, 37; in 
Brazil, 243, 244; in Guayaquil, 252 



272 



